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Period  Furnishings 

AN  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  HISTORIC  FURNITURE, 
DECORATIONS  AND  FURNISHINGS 


By  C.  R.  CLIFFORD 


FULLY  ILLUSTRATED 


do2 


Published  by  CLIFFORD  & LAWTON 
NEW  YORK 


Copyright,  1914 
By  Clifford  & Lawton 


INTRODUCTORY 

IN  PRESENTING  this  work  upon  the  period  furnishings  of  the  house,  cov- 
ering historic  furniture,  fabrics,  wall  treatments,  fitments  and  accessories,  I 
would  lay  emphasis  upon  the  fact  that  the  subject  cannot  be  grasped  by  blind 
groping  or  desultory  reading.  We  cannot  comprehend  by  simply  memorizing 
dates  and  incidents.  We  must  know  the  underlying  origin  and  impetus  and  the  growth 
of  the  styles  as  influenced  primarily  by  the  events  of  history  and  all  that  makes 
history ; the  development  of  nations,  their  social  customs  and  their  characteristics. 
There  are  no  short  cuts  to  be  taken  in  a spirit  of  impatience.  But  to  the  man  who 
is  not  easily  discouraged  at  the  outset  this  line  of  study  opens  a field  of  world- 
wide and  compelling  interest.  If  he  approaches  the  subject  with  an  orderly  mind  he 
will  comprehend  from  the  first  the  broad  distinctions  and  soon  begin  to  differentiate 
in  the  more  subtle  details  of  decoration. 

Since  the  study  must  be  systematic,  I have  prepared  charts  showing  the  de- 
velopment of  races  as  well  as  charts  showing  the  development  of  nations.  These 
give  us  a retrospect  of  relationship  which  will  prepare  the  student  to  comprehend 
the  later  chronological  chart  which  shows  the  development  of  the  decorative  styles. 
The  differentiation  between  the  periods  can  be  made  in  many  cases  only  by  a knowl- 
edge of  historic  relation.  Chronological  consistency  satisfies  one’s  sense  of 
order,  and  this  is  quite  as  important  a consideration  in  the  decoration  of  a room  as  comfort  in  the  fur- 
nishings. 

Decoration  must  be  consistent  not  only  in  its  construction  and  application,  but  in  its  associations.  An- 
cient architects  laid  down  distinct  laws  of  design  covering  the  five  orders,  the  Ionic,  the  Doric,  the  Corinthian, 

the  Composite  and  the  Tuscan.  To-day  the  laws  of  composition  upon  which  these  orders  were  founded 

are  as  effective  as  ever,  for  they  are  not  arbitrary,  but  are  based  upon  the  nature  of  the  human 

mind,  the  eye  and  the  characteristics  of  the  materials  of  construction.  We  must  work  in  accordance  with 

these  principles  if  we  are  to  satisfy  the  critical  taste  of  men  of  culture  and  perception.  The  outward  forms 
changed  from  period  to  period,  expressing  in  their  lines,  ornament  and  coloring,  the  temperament  and 
spirit  of  the  people  of  the  times.  Through  progressive  stages  art  became  altered  by  elimination,  by  absorp- 
tion, and  by  temperamental  interpolations,  evolving  practically  new  types  and  new  forms ; but  running  through 
all  these  changing  styles  are  the  immutable  laws  of  composition  and  proportion. 

We  trace  with  little  difficulty  the  progress  of  the  arts  and  the  development  of  distinct  periods  from  the 
days  of  earliest  Babylonia,  Egypt,  and  Assyria,  through  Greece  and  Lower  Italy,  through  Asia  Minor, 
through  Bagdad  and  Byzantium,  into  the  Mongol  courts  of  Samarkand.  We  note  the  influence  of  the 
Saracenic  zealots  along  the  Mediterranean.  We  note  the  desultory  expression  of  a struggling  Gothic  art 
through  the  dark  period  of  the  Middle  Ages.  We  note  the  awakening  finally  in  Italy  during  the  Four- 
teenth Century,  which  expanded  into  that  glorious  climacteric  era  the  Renaissance.  As  the  Renaissance 
developed,  carrying  with  it  as  an  underlying  basis  the  classic  arts  of  Greece  and  Rome,  it  was  affected  by 
local  influences.  Religion  and  commerce  alike  left  their  imprint,  until  finally  with  . the  opening  of  the 
Seventeenth  Century  distinct  forms  varying  with  the  temperament  of  the  nations  and  of  the  individual 
craftsmen,  and  affected  at  all  times  materially  by  the  wealth  of  suggestion  which  came  through  the  chan- 
nels of  foreign  intercourse,  made  their  appearance.  If  we  would  grasp  the  meaning  and  the  feeling  of 
what,  for  want  of  a better  term,  we  call  the  decorative  periods,  we  must  comprehend  the  influence  in  each  period 
of  the  four  prime  factors  in  the  development  of  art,  namely,  temperament,  religion,  commerce,  and  education. 

If  within  the  limits  of  this  book  T have  been  able  to  elucidate  the  subject  sufficiently  to  give  the  student 
an  intelligent  grasp  of  the  essential  points,  I have  accomplished  all  that  I set  out  to  do.  For  the  benefit  of 
those  who  would  pursue  the  investigation  further,  I append  a list  of  books  to  which  I have  had  access  and 
from  which  I have  reproduced  many  illustrations.  I wish  to  express  my  sense  of  personal  obligation  to  the 
authors  of  these  books,  whose  original  investigations  have  made  them  the  highest  authorities,  each  upon  his 
own  special  branch  of  this  subject,  and  whose  works  I have  found  invaluable  sources  of  information. 


C.  R.  CLIFFORD. 


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SERIES  OF  TABLES  TRACING  THE  ORIGIN  AND 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  NATIONS,  WITH  THEIR 
VARIOUS  ARTS,  PRODUCTS,  ETC. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  NATIONS.  4000  B.  C.— 100  B.  G. 


BABYLONIAN. 

B.C. 

4000.  Ancient  Babylonian. 
1300.  Conquered  by  Assyria. 
600.  Regained  independence 
after  many  wars  as  New 
Empire  of  Babylon. 

500.  Became  Persian  Prov- 
ince. 

EGYPTIAN. 

4000.  Ancient  Kingdom. 

3000.  Middle  Kingdom. 

2000.  New  Empire.  Highly 
civilized. 

500.  Became  Persian  Prov- 
ince. 

300.  Late  Art  Period. 
Greek  invasion  of  Alexan- 
der of  Macedonia.  Ptolemy 
I,  general  under  Alexander, 
was  placed  over  Egypt  and 
added  Lower  Syria,  Pales- 
tine and  Cyprus. 

100.  Conquered  by  Rome. 
Egyptian  descendants  were 
called  Copti. 

ASSYRIAN. 

3000.  Chaldean  Period. 

2000.  Assyrian  Period.  Col- 
onized from  Babylonia. 

625.  Conquered  by  Medes. 
500.  Median  Empire  cover- 
ing Lydia  and  Phrygia  in 
Western  Anatolia. 

300.  Invasion  of  Alexander. 
100.  Assyria,  Mesopotamia 
and  Babylonia  made  Roman 
Provinces. 

PERSIAN. 

4000.  Before  the  dawn  of 
history  in  Europe,  the  Ar- 
yan tribes  of  Asia  migrated 
East  as  far  as  India  and 
West  to  Greece.  The  Iran 
Plateau  lay  between  Cas- 
pian Sea  and  Indian  Ocean 
in  Central  and  Western 


Asia.  Those  settling  in 
North  were  called  Medes; 
those  South,  Persians;  those 
West,  Celts. 

1200.  Bactrians,  Medes  and 
Persians  occupied  the  Iran 
Plateau. 

500.  Supremacy  of  Median 
Period  passed  to  Persians, 
who  formed  Empire.  Syria, 
Phoenicia,  Cyprus,  Judea  and 
part  of  Arabia  paid  tribute. 
200.  Parthian  Empire  dom- 
inated a vast  territory  from 
250  B.C.  to  220  A.D.  Sassanian 
Empire  held  sway  220-640 
A.D. 

PHOENICIAN. 

2000.  Highly  civilized. 

1300.  Colonies  in  Crete, 
Cyprus  and  Rhodes. 

1100.  Tyre,  famous  city, 
fell  repeatedly  under  Assyr- 
ian rule. 

500.  Subject  to  Persia. 

300.  Invasion  of  Alexander 
of  Macedonia. 

HEBRAIC.  r 

2000.  Empire  of  Shepherd 
Kings  on  frontier  of  As- 
syria. 

1500.  Migrated  to  Egypt. 

1100.  David  King  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

1000.  King  Solomon. 

600.  Kingdom  divided  into 
Israel  and  Judea. 

500.  Jerusalem  Jews  became 
subject  to  Babylonia,  Assyria 
and  Rome. 

200.  Emancipation  of  Jews. 
100.  Jerusalem  captured  by 
Pompey  (63)  ; Jews  become 
Roman  subjects. 

100.  Herod  recognized  by 
Romans  King  of  Judea  (40). 

GREEK. 

1900.  Pelasgians  from  South- 
western Asia  Minor,  original 
Greeks. 


1100.  Pelasgians  called  Hel- 
lenes divided  into  Dorian 
and  Ionian  tribes. 

600.  Spartan  Supremacy. 
Ionic  Art  Period. 

290.  Corinthian  Art  Period. 
300.  Macedonia  having  be- 
come leading  State  in  Greek 
Empire  336,  Alexander  of 
Macedonia  waged  war  against 
Persia  and  the  East  and 
conquered  all  Asia  as  far  as 
India,  spreading  Greek  cul- 
ture. Antioch,  Syria,  Alex- 
andria, Rhodes,  Asia  Minor 
became  Eastern  centers  of 
Greek  Art. 

200.  Macedonia  becomes 
Roman  Province. 

SPANISH— FRENCH 
—PORTUGUESE. 

2000.  Celts  settled  in  and 
about  Spain. 

190.0.  Phoenicians  visited 
Spain. 

1300.  Portugal  was  ancient 
Iberia. 

1200.  France  was  peopled 
by  Teuton  tribes  and  called 
Gaul. 

600.  Celts  dominated  Spain. 
500.  While  the  Celtic  tribes 
and  the  men  of  Gaul  (orig- 
inally Teutons)  were  all 
termed  Gallic  people,  they 
gradually  formed  distinct  di- 
visions. 

100.  At  the  opening  of 
Christian  era  all  the  Gallic 
country  came  under  Roman 
conquest. 

ROMAN. 

700.  Mythical  Period. 

400.  Empire  dismembered. 

200.  Conquest  of  Spain  and 
Gaul. 

100.  Destruction  of  Mace- 
donian Monarchy  by  Ro- 
mans. Invasion  of  England. 


ETRUSCAN. 

1200.  Aryan  tribes  of  Asia 
living  North  of  Rome  and  in 
country  now  Tuscany. 

600.  Period  of  highest  devel- 
opment. 

Subjugated  by  Romans,  351 


TEUTONIC. 

600.  Tribes  of  barbarians 
called  Teutons  occupied  ter- 
ritory now  Germany,  Prus- 
sia, Holland,  Belgium,  Ba- 
varia, Scandinavia,  North- 
ern Italy,  Saxony. 

500.  Scandinavia,  covering 
Denmark  and  Sweden,  occu- 
pied by  Finnish  tribes.  In 
Denmark  dwelt  Saxons,  An- 
gles and  Jutes. 

200.  Dominated  by  the  Ro- 
mans. 


CELTIC. 


2000.  Aryan  tribes  from 
Asia  living  North  of  Rome 
and  in  country  now  Tus- 
cany. First  of  the  Aryans 
to  settle  in  Western  Europe. 
They  occupied  the  country 
now  France,  but  then  called 
Gaul,  and  together  with  Teu- 
ton tribes  who  found  their 
way  West  and  settled  there, 
were  included  among  the 
Gallic  people.  Period  of 
highest  development. 

600.  Subjugated  Spain. 

500.  Reached  Great  Britain. 
100.  Gallic  tribes  formed 
divisions  distinct  from  Celtic 
tribes  and  at  opening  of 
Christian  era  were  con- 
quered by  Caesar,  Emperor 
of  Rome. 


] 

CHRONOLOGY  SHOWING  THE 

Batavians,  78;  British,  86;  Burgundians,  28;  Byzantine,  10;  Danes,  Swedes,  Norwegians,  Finns,  65;  Franks,  37;  German  Kingdom,  33; 

Saracens,  62;  Saxons,  Angles,  Jutes,  66;  Scandinavians,  65;  Scotch,  82;  Slavs  and 


A.D. 

100 


200 

300 


ROMAN. 

(1)  Destruction  Pompeii 
and  Herculaneum,  79  A.D. 
Roman  Empire  extended 
over  Greece,  Italy,  the  Gre- 
cian Islands,  Cyprus,  Crete, 
Rhodes,  Cyrene,  Carthage, 
Spain,  France,  Germanic 
Countries  and  Western  Asia, 
including  Armenia  and 
Mesopotamia. 

(2)  Hadrian  successor  to 
Trajan  abandoned  Armenia 
and  Mesopotamia. 

(3)  Constantine,  Emperor, 

became  protector  of  Chris- 
tians. Accepted  Christian 
religion  328.  330  changed 

capital  of  Empire  to  Byzan- 
tium. (See  10.) 


BYZANTINE. 


400 


(4)  Roman  Empire  dismem- 
jj  bered  455.  Invasion  of  Van- 
si:  dais.  (See  28.) 


500 


600 


700 


(6)  751.  Rome  independ- 

ent. First  Papal  States. 
(See  21  and  48.) 


800 


900 


(7  ) 800-1200.  Saracenic  in- 
fluence prevailed. 


(10) 


Byzantine  Empire 
under  Constantine.  By- 
zantium changed  to  Con- 
stantinople. This  con- 
stituted the  Eastern 
Division  of  Roman  Em- 
pire. (See  3.) 


(See  16,  17,  18.) 


27  (5)  590.  Gregory  I Bishop 

w of  Rome. 


(12  ) 700.  Lombards  (or 

Langobards)  conquered 
the  greater  part  of  the 
Byzantine  Empire  in 
Europe.  (See  48.) 


ITALIAN. 

(14)  Italy  originally  a 
term  applying  to  the 
peninsula  divided  into 
Upper,  Central,  Lower 
Italy  and  Islands,  Sicily, 
Sardinia  and  Corsica. 
At  opening  of  century 
Italy  was  included  in 
Roman  Empire. 


(15)  320.  Langobards 

were  located  on  Lower 
Elbe.  (See  30.) 


(11)  527.  Justinian  be- 

gan twenty-year  war 
which  destroyed  influence 
of  Goths  and  Huns. 
(See  29.) 


(16)  Invasion  of  West 
Goths  400. 

(17)  476.  Odoacer  be- 
came Prefect  of  Italy. 

(18)  452.  Huns  under 
Attila  invade  Italy. 
Venice  founded  by 
Italian  refugees. 


(19)  568.  The  Lango- 
bards conquered  Italy 
south  to  Tiber.  (See  67.) 

(20)  590.  Gregory  I 
Bishop  of  Rome.  Begin- 
ning of  Papacy. 


(21)  751.  First  Papal 

States.  (See  48.) 

(22)  773.  Lombardic 
Kingdom  destroyed  by 
Charlemagne,  Charles  the 
Great,  who  became  King 
of  Italy.  (See  48  and 
67.) 


(8)  966.  Dominated 

German  nations. 


byk 


(13)  Until  1057  Eastern  « (23)  800.  Charles  re- 

's or  Byzantine  Empire  was'S  vived  office  of  Emperor 
■r  under  Macedonian  rule.  § °f  West. 

Byzantine  art  flourished  >J 
until  the  conquest  of  the 
Eastern  Empire.  Muham- 
med  II  destroyed  By- 
zantine or  Eastern  Em- 
pire, in  1453.  _.  _ 

(24)  961.  First  Empire. 


1000 


TEUTONIC. 

(25)  Teutons  occupied  ter- 
ritory now  Wurtemberg,  Ba- 
varia, Bohemia,  Saxony, 
Hesse,  Holland,  Hanover, 
Prussia,  Swiss  and  Tyrol 
Alps  and  Scandinavia.  Re- 
ligion of  nature  worship. 


(26)  Many  small  tribes  in 
close  relation  with  Romans. 

(27)  320.  Beginning  of 
migration  of  Germanic 
tribes. 

(28)  Alani  located  on  low- 
er Volga;  East  Goths,  South- 
ern Russia;  West  Goths, 
Eastern  Hungary;  Vandals, 
Southwestern  Hungary;  Su- 
evi,  Bohemia,  Moravia  and 
Bavaria;  Burgundians  on 
the  Rhine  ; Ripuarian 
Franks;  both  sides  lower 
Rhine;  Sohe  Franks  at 
mouth  of  Rhine. 

(29)  West  Goths  laid  waste 
Macedonia  and  Greece,  and 
invaded  Italy,  400. 

(30)  Langobards  on  lower 
Elbe. 

(31)  476.  Odoacer  recog- 
nized by  Eastern  Emperor 
as  Prefect  of  Italy.  (See  17 
and  18.) 


FRENCH. 

(35)  Roman  province. 

(36)  170.  First  Christian 
church  at  Lyons. 


(37)  350.  Invasion  of 

Franks.  (See  28.) 


(32)  See  50. 


(38  ) 400.  Invasion  of  Van- 

dals, Suevi  and  Alian.  (See 
28.) 

443.  Burgundians,  Visigoths 
and  Franks  settled  in  upper 
Rhone.  (See  28.) 

(40)  450.  Huns  under  At- 
tila ravage  Gaul. 

(41)  486.  Monarchy  estab- 
lished by  Clovis. 

(42)  511.  Division  of  King- 
dom with  four  court  camps 
Metz,  Paris,  Soissons  and 
Orleans. 

(43)  561.  Second  Division. 
Austrasia  with  capital  at 
Rheims.  Population  chiefly 
German.  Neustria  capital 
Soissons,  Burgundy  capital 
Orleans.  Population  of  last 
two  Celtic. 

(44)  620.  Dagobert. 

(45)  632.  Third  Division. 
Austrasia,  principally  Ger- 

, man  Neustria,  Northern 
France,  not  reckoning  Bre- 
tagne and  Burgundy. 

(46) .  687.  Pipin  of  Aus- 
trasia became  head  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Franks. 

(47)  732.  Martell,  son  and 
successor  of  Pipin,  drove  out 
Arabian  invaders. 

(48)  751.  Langobards 
(Lombards)  having  con- 
quered almost  all  Byzantine 
territory  in  Europe,  except- 
ing Venice,  Ravenna,  Naples 
and  Rome,  Pope  Stephen  III 
sought,  aid  of  Pipin  the 
Short,  who  drove  back  the 
Lombards  and  was  rewarded 
by  being  placed  at  head  of 
First  Papal  States. 

(49)  772.  War  with  Sax- 
ons (pagans).  Absorption  of 

■ Saxon  land.  (See  66.) 

' (50)  843-  Empire  divided 
; into  East  and  West  Frank- 
ish Empire,  which  eventu- 
~ ally  became  Germany  and 
! France. 


(33)  919.  Henry  I founded0  <->l)  986.  Hugh  Capet 

German  Monarchy.  ch°sen  kmS  of  French  mon- 

(34)  966.  Holy  Roman  Em-  <u  < 


pire  of  German  nations. 


(52)  911.  Northmen  (or. 

S Normans)  gained  permanent 
H foothold  in  Normandy  with 
a sovereignty  over  Brittany, 
£ and  with  Rouen  as  capital. 
£ (See  92.) 


4 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  NATIONS 

Huns,  18;  Irish,  84;  Lombards-Langobards,  12;  Moors,  62;  Normans,  86;  Papal  States,  21;  Poles,  Bohemians,  Russians,  76;  Roman,  1; 
Finns,  73;  Spanish,  55;  Teutons,  25;  Vandals,  28;  West  Goths,  21;  Norsemen,  52. 


SPANISH.  MOORISH.  SCANDINAVIAN. 

(65)  Occupied  500  B.C.  by 
Finns  and  wandering  Teu- 
tons. In  Denmark  dwelt 
Saxons,  Angles  and  Jutes. 
At  beginning  of  century, 
Odin  leader  of  Asas,  be- 
tween Black  Sea  and  Cas- 
pian, passed  into  Scandi- 
navia and  subdued  Denmark, 
Sweden  and  Norway. 

(53)  205.  Spain  regarded 
as  Roman  province. 


RUSSIAN.  FLEMISH.  ENGLISH. 

j i -n  . See  also  Celtic. 

(78)  Occupied  by  Bata-  (81)  England,  B.C.,  occupied 
vians*  by  barbarous  tribes.  Phoeni- 

cians visited  England  at  an 
early  period.  Celts  settled 
there  500  B.C.  Roman  inva- 
sion, 58  B.C.  Roman  con- 
quest of  Southern  England 
43  A.D. 

(82)  81.  Roman  power  ex- 
tended as  far  as  Scotland. 

(73)  Slavs  and  Finns,  lo- 
cated between  Black  Sea 
and  Baltic. 


(54)  406.  Invaded  by 
Vandals,  Suevi  and 
Alani. 

(55)  414.  West  Goths  (60)  Kingdom  of  Vandal  (66)  Saxons,  Angles  and 
(Visigoths)  founded  founded  in  Northern  Jutes  lived  in  Denmark.  In 
kingdom  of  Toulouse.  Africa.  Becomes  naval  450  many  settled  in  England. 

power.  (See  79.) 


(56)  507.  Goth  kingdoi 

till  711. 


(61)  Vandals  controlled 
Coast  of  Africa. 

Berbers  were  the  natives 
of  Barbary. 


(67)  The  Lombards  entered 
Italy  from  Slav  territory. 
Founded  powerful  nation 
568-774  which  was  destroyed 
by  Charlemagne.  (See  22.) 


(74)  500.  Extended  West 
to  Balkan  Peninsula,  Bo- 
hemia and  the  Tyrol. 


(79)  449.  ^ Angles  and 

Saxons  (pirates)  settled 
on  Coast  of  FFanders. 
Were  called  in  by  Brit- 
ons to  help  repel  their 
enemies  of  the  North, 
now  Scotland. 


(83)  AiO.  Withdrawal  of  Ro- 
man legions. 

(84)  440.  St.  Patrick  con- 
verted Irish  to  Christianity. 

(85)  449.  Jutes  from  Den- 
mark and  Angles  and  Sax- 
ons from  Flanders,  pagans 
came  ostensibly  to  help  Brit- 
ons against  their  foes.  Many 
Britons  migrated  to  Wales 
and  Gaul,  where  country  of 
their  settlement  was  called 
Bretagne  (Brittany). 

(86)  500.  Great  Britain 
ruled  by  petty  kingdom  of 
Saxons,  Angles  and  Jutes. 


(75)  623.  Slavic  mon- 
archy for  thirty-seven 
years. 

(76)  660.  Separate  mon- 
archies of  Poland,  Bohe- 
mia and  Russia. 


600.  Christianity  preached. 
Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  was 
converted. 

(87)  From  Sixth  to  Twelfth 
Century  Ireland  famous  in 
art  and  literature  and  sent 
Christian'  missionaries  over 
all  Europe. 


(57)  711.  Goth  kingdom  (62)  700.  Saracens  corn- 

destroyed  by  Moors.  pleting  conquest  of  By- 

(58)  755.  Caliphate  of  zantine  Africa,  the  Ber- 

Cordova  brilliant  period  bers  who  accepted  Islam 
of  supremacy.  together  with  other 

settlers  and  joined  the 
Arabians  under  the  name 
of  Moors. 

(63)  711.  Moors  invade 
Spain. 

(64)  755.  Establish  Cali- 
phate of  Cordova. 


(68)  800.  Gorm  first  King  of 
Denmark,  Pagan.  Sweden 
attained  greatest  power  of 
the  Scandinavian  kingdom. 


(77)  862.  Bands 

Swedes  of  Scandinavia 
subjugated  Slavs  and  laid 
foundation  for  future 
Russia. 


Independent 
Duchies  Brabant,  Flan- 
ders, Guelders,  Holland, 
Zealand,  Hainault  and 
the  Bishopric  of  Utrecht. 


(88)  827.  Egbert  First  Sax- 
on King. 

(89)  852.  Dublin  conquered 
by  Norwegians  or  Northmen. 

(90)  828.  Ravages  of  North- 
men, Scandinavian  vikings. 


of  (80)  800. 


(69)  930.  Christianity  in- 
troduced. 

(70)  Denmark.  United  king- 
doms from  850  to  1520. 

(71)  Sweden.  Olaf  993. 
First  Christian  King  of 
Sweden. 


(59)  1031.  Dissolution  of 
Caliphate  of  Cordova. 


5 


(72)  Norway.  Christianity 
introduced  Norway,  1030,  by 
Irish  missionaries. 


(91)  In  1014  Irish  defeated 
Danes  and  Norsemen. 

(92)  1066.  Conquest  of  Eng- 
land by  Normans  of  Nor- 
mandy (Norsemen). 

(93)  William  the  Conqueror 
carrying  French  art  into 
England. 


A D.  ITALIAN. 


1000 


1100 

1200 

1300 


1000.  Western  Europe,  par- 
ticularly Italy,  threatened 
by  the  Northmen,  Hungari- 
ans and  the  Saracens  as  well 
as  by  the  Feudal  system 
which  levied  heavy  taxes 
upon  cities  to  support  the 
Lords  of  the  Fief,  banded 
together  in  protective  league 
and  a number  of  confedera- 
tions were  the  result. 
Venice,  Genoa  and  Pisa  did 
great  Italian  trade  with  the 
East.  A Lombard  league  was 
formed  of  the  exiled  Milan- 
ese and  a number  of  the 
cities  of  North  Italy. 

1032.  Kingdom  of  Germany, 
Kingdom  of  Italy  and  King- 
dom of  Burgundy  constituted 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire, 
Germany  extending  from  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  north  to 
Denmark. 

1100.  Venice,  which  had  its 
beginning  in  400  in  the  huts 
of  refugees  who  fled  from  the 
Huns,  became  famous. 

1261.  Period  of  greatest  pros- 
perity for  Genoa. 

1261.  Michael  Palaeologus 
put  an  end  to  the  Latin 
Empire. 

1300.  Venice  at  height  of 
her  power.  Supreme  on  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  up  to 
Fifteenth  Century,  when  the 
conquests  of  Ottoman  Turks 
destroyed  her  Eastern  rela- 
tions and  the  trade  went  to 
the  countries  further  West. 


1400.  Florence  famous  for  its 
manufacture.  Fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Medici. 

EARLY  RENAISSANCE. 
1400-1600.  Florentine  Renais- 
sance. 

1400-1600.  Milanese  Renais- 
sance. 

1450.  Italy  came  to  the  close 
of  the  Middle  Ages  with  no 
national  government.  The 
greater  part  of  the  popula- 
tion was  divided  between 
the  five  States,  the  Duchy  of 
Milan,  the  two  nominal  re- 
publics of  Venice  and  Flor- 
ence, the  Papal  States  and 
the  Kingdom  of  Naples  in 
the  South. 

1500  1490-1600.  Venetian  Renais- 
sance. 

1444-1643.  Roman  Renais- 
sance. 

1453.  Flight  of  Greek  schol- 
ars to  Italy,  where  they 
taught  Grecian  arts,  science 
and  literature. 

1500-1540.  High  Renaissance. 
1540-1643.  Late  Renaissance. 


1600 


1700 


1809.  Papal  States  seized  by 
■OvFil  Napoleon. 

1830.  United  Italian  prov- 

inces. 

1861.  First  Italian  Parlia- 
ment. Victor  Emanuel  first 
King  of  Italy. 

1866.  Venetia  added  to  the 
Kingdom. 

1870.  France  withdrew 
support  of  the  Pope,  Rome 
became  a portion  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Italy  and  Italy 
became  a united  nation. 

1871.  Papal  troops  were  dis- 
banded. Pope  was  given  the 
Vatican  as  a residence  and 
secured  in  the  exercise  of 
his  spiritual  functions. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  NATIONS 


FLEMISH-DUTCH. 

1000.  Netherlands  (Low- 
lands) during  large  part  of 
Middle  Ages  were  divided 
into  a number  of  petty  prin- 
cipalities. 


SPANISH— 

PORTUGUESE. 


1000.  Spain  divided  by  many  ^crusade, 
petty  governments,  some  of£ 
them  Christian  kingdoms, 

Asturia,  Castile,  Navarre,^ 

Aragon,  as  well  as  a number  £ 
of  small  Mohammedan  ° 

States.  Portugal  part  oiw 
Spain.  c 

1905.  County  of  Portugal  a § 

Spanish  peninsular.  Under  £ 
Burgundian  control.  Son  o^S. 

Count  Henry  of  Burgundy^ 
made  King  of  Portugal. 

1096.  County  of  Portugal 
revolted. 


FRENCH. 

1060-1108.  Philip  L 


ENGLISH. 

First  1066-1087.  William  the 
Conqueror. 

1087-1100.  William  II. 


1300.  Flanders  came  into 
possession  of  House  of  Bur- 
gundy and  soon  all  of  the 
other  petty  provinces  were 
acquired  by  Charles  the 
Bold,  the  last  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy. At  his  death  the 
Netherlands  fell  to  his 
daughter  Mary  and  finally 
into  the  possession  of  her 
son,  Emperor  Charles  V of 
Spain.  The  great  cities  of 
this  country  were  Ghent, 
Bruges,  Mechlin,  Liege, 
Tournai,  Courtrai,  Brussels 
and  Antwerp  of  the  South 
provinces  and  Haarlem, 
Delft,  Leyden,  Amsterdam, 
Utrecht  and  Rotterdam  of 
the  North.  Some  of  them 
were  city  republics. 


1500.  During  reign  of  Charles 
V,  1515-1555,  the  Northern 
Netherlanders  were  treated 
with  great  cruelty  in  effort 
to  check  growth  of  Protest- 
antism as  well  as  subjugate 
the  people  who  denied  Span- 
ish authority.  The  struggle 
lasted  forty  years. 

1576.  Holland,  Zeeland, 
Gelderland  and  Utrecht,  the 
northern  provinces  of  the 
Netherlands,  entered  into  a 
union  eventually  the  found- 
ing of  the  Dutch  Republic. 

1577.  All  provinces  united 
to  drive  the  Spanish  soldiers 
from  the  country.  Help 
furnished  the  Hollanders  by 
the  English. 

1579.  The  States  of  North- 
ern Netherlands  became 
known  as  the  seven  united 
provinces.  The  Southern 
States  now  Belgium  con- 
tinued Catholic  and  loyal  to 
Spain. 

1609.  France  and  England 
became  involved  through 
sympathy  vvith  the  Nether- 
lands, Philip  III  granted  a 
truce  which  became  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Northern 
Netherlanders,  who  formed 
the  Dutch  Republic.  The 
Dutch  became  famous  as 
great  sailors,  replacing  the 
Portuguese  in  the  settlement 
of  the  trading  posts  in  the 
East  Indies. 

1813.  Formation  of  King- 
dom of  the  Netherlands  and 
Austrian  Belgium. 

1830.  The  Belgians  declared 
themselves  independent  of 
Holland,  and  the  Kingdom 
of  Belgium  was  established. 


1140.  Kingdom  of  Portugal. 


1238.  The  Moors  in  Spain 
since  1238  were  confined  to 
the  Kingdom  of  Granada. 

1383.  Greatest  power  of 
Portugal.  Conquered  Tan- 
giers.  Formed  Christian 
Kingdom  in  North  Africa. 
Voyages  and  discoveries. 
Following  the  Turkish  con- 
quest of  Constantinople, 
European  traders  endeavor- 
ed to  discover  a direct  ocean 
route  to  India,  which  led 
eventually  to  the  discovery 
of  America. 

1400.  Through  the  Fifteenth 
Century  Portugal  sailors 
penetrated  into  the  mysteri- 
ous tropical  seas  and  dis- 
covered new  islands  off  coast 
of  Africa. 

1492.  Spain  conquered  Gran- 
ada. Columbus  presented  to 
Portugal  plans  of  explora- 
tion, and  failing  assistance, 
was  about  to  offer  services 
to  France  or  England  when 
the  capture  of  Granada 
promised  the  necessary 
means  from  the  country  of 
his  adoption  (Spain)  with 
the  result  known  to  history. 

SPANISH  RENAISSANCE. 

1500.  Portuguese  Renais- 
sance. 

1500.  Opened  possessions  in 
Persia  and  India.  Active 
in  America.  Subjugated  parts 
of  South  America. 


1600.  Spanish  withdrawal 
from  Netherlands. 

1610.  Moors  expelled  from 
Spain. 

1640.  Following  the  loss  of 
the  Netherlands,  Spain  lost 
Portugal. 


GOTHIC  PERIOD. 


1108-1137. 

Louis  VI. 

1137-1180. 

Louis  VII. 

1180-1223. 

Philip  II. 

122.3  1226. 

Louis  VIII. 

1226-1270. 

Louis  IX. 

1270-1285. 

Philip  III. 

1285-1314. 

Philip  IV. 

1314-1316. 

Louis  X. 

1316-1322. 

Philip  V. 

1322-1328. 

Charles  IV. 

1328-1350. 

Philip  VI. 

1350-1364. 

John  II. 

1364-1380. 

' Charles  V. 

1380-1422. 

Charles  VI. 

1422-1461. 

Charles  VII. 

1461-1483. 

Louis  XI. 

1483-1498. 

Charles  VIII 

1498-1515. 

Louis  XII. 

1100-1135.  Henry  I. 
1135-1154.  Stephen. 
1154-1189.  Henry  II. 

EARLY  ENGLISH 
GOTHIC. 

1189-1199.  Richard  I. 
1199-1216.  John. 

1216-12 72.  Henry  III. 
1272-1307.  Edward  I. 


1307.  Decorated  Gothic. 
1307-1327.  Edward  II. 
1327-1377.  Edward  III. 
1377-1399.  Richard  I. 
layy.  Perpendicular 
Gothic. 

1399-1413.  Henry  IV. 


1413-1422.  Henry  V. 
1422-1461.  Henry  VI. 
1461-1483.  Edward  IV. 
1483.  Edward  V. 

1483-1485.  Richard. 
1485-1509.  H e n r y VII 
(founder  of  Tudor  line). 


FRENCH  RENAIS- 
SANCE. 

1515-1547.  Francis  I. 

1529.  Reformation.  Gobe-‘ 
lins  manufacture  tapes- 
try. 

1547-1559.  Henri  II. 

1559- 1560.  Francis  II. 

1560- 1574.  Charles  IX. 
1574-1589.  Henri  III. 
1589-1610.  Henri  IV. 

1598.  Edict  of  Nantes. 


ENGLISH  RENAIS- 
SANCE. 

1509-1547.  Henry  VIII 
(John  of  Padua,  archi- 
tect). 

1534.  English  Reforma- 
tion. 

1547-1553.  Edward  VI. 
1553-1558.  Mary. 
Elizabethan. 

1558-1603.  Elizabeth. 


1604.  French  East  India 
Co.  established. 

1610-1643.  Louis  XIII. 
1611,  1615,  1642.  French 
East  India  Co.  charters 
renewed. 

1643-1715.  Louis  XIV. 
Gof>elins  become  royal 
property. 

Le  Brun  dictator  of 
styles. 

Beauvais  Tapestry  Works 
established. 

Chinese  characteristics 
introduced. 

1685.  Revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  and 
consequent  flight  of 
many  Protestant  work 
people. 

1715-1774.  Louis  XV.  Ro- 
coco Period). 

1774-1792.  Louis  XVI. 
(Marie  Antoinette). 
1793-1795.  Revolutionary 
Period. 

1795-1804.  Directoire  or 
Transition  Period. 
David  the  prime  influ- 
ence in  decoration. 
1804-1814.  Empire.  David 
dictator  of  style. 


1602.  Dutch  East  India 
Co.  established. 

1603-1649.  Jacobean  (many 
Flemish  and  German 
workmen  settled  in  Eng- 
land). 

1603-1625.  James  I (found- 
er Stuart  period,  beginning 
of  American  settlement). 
1620.  Settlement  at  Ply- 
mouth, Mass. 

1625-1649.  Charles  I. 
1653-1659.  Cromwellian. 
Many  Royalists  fled  to 
France. 

1660.  Exiled  Royalists 
returned  from  France. 
1660-1685.  Charles  II. 

1660.  London  East  India 
Co.  established. 

1685-1689.  James  II. 

1685.  Revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  brought 
many  French  and  Flemish 
weavers  and  woodwork- 
ers to  England. 

1689-1702.  William  and 
Mary. 

1702-1714.  Queen  Anne. 
1714-1727.  George  I. 
1727-1760.  George  II. 

1776.  American  Revolu- 
tion and  establishment 
of  the  United  States. 
1760-1820.  George  III. 
1830-1837.  William  IV. 
1837-1901.  Victoria. 


6 


THE  PERIOD  STYLES  CLASSIFIED 


Beginnings 

OLD  BABYLONIAN  4000  B.  C. 

EGYPTIAN  4000-332 
CHINESE  3500 

ASSYRIAN  2286-608 
Chaldean  Period  2286-1300 
Assyrian  1300-625 
Median  640-558 
Babylonian  608-538 
INDIAN  2000 

GREEK  1900  B.  C.-168  A.  D. 

Doric  700,  Ionic  600,  Corinthian  290 


JAPANESE  1200 
ETRUSCAN  1044-238  B.  C. 

(Tuscan) 

ROMAN  753  B.  C.-45S  A.  D. 

Following  the  Greek  orders,  Doric, 
Ionic  and  Corinthian;  also  the  Tus- 
can and  Roman  Composite 


PERSIAN  EMPIRE  558  B.  C. 
BUDDHA  PERIOD,  India,  500 

CELTIC  200  B.  C.-1100  A.  D. 
POMPEIIAN  101  B.  C.-79  A.  D. 
PARTHIAN  EMPIRE,  Persia,  250 
B.  C.-220  A.  D. 


NORTHERN  AND  SCANDINA- 
VIAN 100  A.  D. 

ROMAN  GERMANIC  100-700 
SASSANIAN  EMPIRE,  PERSIAN, 
220-641 


BYZANTINE  328-1453 


ARABIAN  571 

MOHAMMEDAN  PERSIA  641 


MOORISH  711-1610 
ROMANESQUE  700-1100 
ROME  Independent.  First  Papal  States 
751 


FLEMISH  850-1758 


FIRST  GERMAN  EMPIRE  961-1806 


SPANISH,  FIRST  CHRISTIAN 
KINGDOMS  1037 


NORMAN  OR  ENGLISH  ROMAN- 
ESQUE 1066-1189 
GOTHIC  1100-1550 
FRENCH  GOTHIC  1108-1515 
Early  English  Gothic  1189-1307 


Developments 

FORTIETH  CENTURY  B.  C. 
THIRTY-FIFTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 

Mythic  Period  3500-2200 
Egyptian  Middle  Empire  3000-2100 
TWENTY-SECOND  CENTURY  B.  C. 
First  Emipre  Chinese  2200 
Assyria  included  the  Medes,  Persians, 
and  Babylonians 
Chaldean  Period  2286-1300 

TWENTIETH  CENTURY  B.  C. 
NINETEENTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 
Graeco-Pelasgic  1900-1384 

FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 

India  Brahma  Period  1400-500 

THIRTEENTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 
Assyrian  1300-625 

TWELFTH  CENURY  B.  C. 

TENTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 

SEVENTH  CENTURY  B C. 

Greek  Doric  700 

SIXTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 

Japanese  Empire  660 
Median  Empire  (Assyrian)  640-558 
Empire  of  Babylon  Oj8-5o8 
Greek  Ionic  600 

FIFTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 

Chinese  Confucius  500 

THIRD  CENTURY  B.  C. 
Graeco-Roman  influence 
Greek  Corinthian  290 
Hellenistic  290-168 

Etruscan  cities  subjugated  by  Rome  350 
SECOND  CENTURY  B.  C. 

FIRST  CENTURY  B.  C. 

Greek  Arts  absorbed  by  Romans 
Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian,  Composite  and 
Tuscan:  the  “five  orders” 

Pure  Greek  100  B.  C.-79  A.  D. 

Egypt  became  Roman  Province 

SECOND  CENTURY  A.  D. 

Roman  Empire  extended  over  Greece, 
Germanic  Countries,  Italy  and  West- 
ern Asia.  See  Chronology  of  Devel- 
opment of  Nations. 

THIRD  CENTURY  A.  D. 

FOURTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 

Constantine  changed  name  of  Byzantium 
to  Constantinople  330 

FIFTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 

ORIENTAL  ROMAN 
Result  of  absorption  of  ideas  from 
Armenia  and  Mesopotamia 

SIXTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 
Beginning  of  Mohammedanism,  571 
Best  Byzantine  Period  550-1000 
SEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 
EIGHTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 
Saracenic  Conquests  in  Byzantine  Em- 
pire, Persia,  India  and  Spain 
Saracenic  Conquest  of  Spain  711 
Caliphate  of  Cordova  enjoyed  bril- 
liant art  period  until  1031 

NINTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 

Arabian  or  Saracenic  Conquests  affect- 
ing Sicilian  Arts 

Russia  under  Byzantine  influence  800 
Independent  Countship  850-1404 
TENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 

Russia  under  Celtic  influence 

ELEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 
William  the  Conqueror  1066-1087 
William  II  1087-1100 
Active  trading  with  the  East 
Wars  of  the  Crusaders  1096-1270 
TWELFTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 
Continuation  Romanesque  Period 
Henry  I 1100-1135 
Stephen  1135-1154 
Henry  II  1154-1189 
Late  Byzantine 

Saracenic  and  Sicilian  arts  merged 


BY  CENTURIES 

Endings 


CHINESE  Mythic  Period,  2200  B.  C. 


CHALDEAN  Assyrian  1300 
GRAECO-PELASGIC  1384 


End  of  Assyrian  Period  625 
Dissolution  of  Assyrian  Empire  608 
BRAHMA  Period,  India,  500 
MEDES  Conquered  by  Persians  558 
BABYLONIAN  EMPIRE  incorporated 
by  Persians  538 


ETRUSCAN  238 

EGYPT  became  Kingdom  332 

Etruscan  Art  Period  238 


GREEK  168 


PARTHIAN  220 


ROMAN  EMPIRE  dismembered  455 


SASSANIAN  EMPIRE  641 


ROMAN  GERMANIC  700 


BEST  BYZANTINE  PERIOD  ended 

1000 


CELTIC  1100 
ROMANESQUE  1189 


7 


THE  PERIOD 

Beginnings 


ALHAMBRAIC  PERIOD  IN 
SPAIN  1200-1300  A.  D. 

OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  ESTAB- 
LISHED IN  ASIA  1258-9 
Supremacy  1298 

ENGLISH  DECORATED  GOTHIC 
1307-1399 

Perpendicular  Gothic  1399-1500 

FLANDERS  1404 

EARLY  ITALIAN  RENAISSANCE 
1400-1500 

FLORENTINE  RENAISSANCE 
1400-1600 

MILANESE  RENAISSANCE  1400- 
1600 

ROMAN  RENAISSANCE  1444-1643 

TURKISH  EMPIRE  1453 
Byzantium  conquered  by  the  Turks 

ENGLISH  RENAISSANCE  1458- 
1603 


ELIZABETHAN  1558-1603 
HIGH  ITALIAN  RENAISSANCE 
1500-1540 

LATE  RENAISSANCE  1540-1643 
FRENCH  RENAISSANCE  1502-1643 
SPANISH  RENAISSANCE  1500 
PORTUGUESE  RENAISSANCE 
1500 

GERMAN  RENAISSANCE  1550 


JACOBEAN  1603-1649 
DUTCH  REPUBLIC  1609 

(Composed  of  the  seven  United 
Provinces) 

CROMWELLIAN 
LOUIS  XIII,  1610-1643 
LOUIS  XIV,  1643-1714 
QUEEN  ANNE,  1702-1714 
GEORGIAN,  1714-1820 
COLONIAL,  1727-1820 
LOUIS  XV 

ROCOCO  PERIOD,  1715-1774 
LOUIS  XVI,  1774-179 3 
DIRECTOIRE,  1795-1804 
EMPIRE,  1804-1814 
COLONIAL  LATE  CLASSIC 
PERIOD,  1804-1820 
VICTORIAN,  1837 
ART  NOUVEAU,  1898 


STYLES  CLASSIFIED 

Developments 

THIRTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 

Height  of  Moorish  Art 
Arabians  and  Saracens  dominated  by 
the  Turks  and  Turkish  dominion  in 
Asia  established  1258 
Ottoman  Empire 

V enice  became  famous  as  an  art  center 

FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 
Covering  reigns  of : 

Edward  II,  Edward  III,  Richard  II, 
Henry  IV,  Henry  V,  Henry  VI, 
Edward  IV,  Edward  V,  Richard  III 

FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 

Great  Trading  Period  of  Flanders  and 
Italy. 

Florence  famous  for  manufactures 
Gobelins  established  dye  works  1440, 
which  afterward  became  famous  for 
manufacture  of  tapestries 

SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 

Age  of  Oak  1500-1660 
Portuguese  opened  East  India  Trade 
1500 

Henry  VII,  Founder  ENGLISH  TU- 
DOR Line,  1458-1509 
Henry  VIII,  1509-1547 
Elizabeth,  1558-1603 
Founded  by  Louis  XII,  1502-1515 
Francis  I,  1515-1549 
Henri  II,  1549-1559 
Francis  II,  1559-1560 
Charles  IX,  1560-1574 
Henri  III,  1574-1589 
Henri  IV,  1589-1610 

In  1576,  Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht, 
Gelderland,  Gromingen,  Friesland  and 
Overyssel  became  known  as  the  Seven 
United  Provinces  and  asserted  inde- 
pendence. The  Southern  Provinces, 
which  form  modern  Belgium  includ- 
ing Flanders,  which  fell  to  Spain  after 
the  abdication  of  Charles  I,  continued 
under  Spanish  domination. 

India,  Mogul  Empire,  1525-1748 
Russian  Empire,  1547 
The  Reformation,  1529 
Portuguese  Settlements  in  Persia 

SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 

Age  of  Walnut,  1660-1700 
Moors  Expelled  from  Spain,  1610 
Dutch  and  East  India  Trading  Com- 
panies Organized,  1600 
New  York  Settled  by  Dutch,  1613 
James  I (founder  STUART 
PERIOD),  1603-1625 
Charles  I,  1625-1649 
Inigo  Jones,  dictator  of  English 
styles,  1625-1652 

Commonwealth  England,  1653-1659 
Inception  Queen  Anne,  1660.  Some- 
times called  Stuart  Period 
Charles  II,  1660-1685 
James  II.  1685-1689 
William  and  Mary,  1689-1702 
Dutch  and  East  India  furnishings  largely 
imported  through  Dutch  and  English 
Trading  Companies. 

Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
brought  many  French  and  Flemish 
weavers  and  woodworkers  to  Eng- 
land 

EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 

Age  of  Mahogany,  1730 
George  I,  1714-1727 
George  II,  1727-1760 
George  III,  1760-1820 

(Age  of  Chippendale,  Sheraton,  Adam 
and  Hepplewhite) 

Flanders  subjugated  by  the  French,  1758 
Russian  Arts  under  French  influence 

NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


BY  CENTURIES 

Endings 


Alhambraic  Period  1300 
Early  English  Gothic  1307 
English  Decorated  Gothic  1399 


Byzantine  1453 

Perpendicular  Gothic  1458-1500 


FRENCH  GOTHIC  1515 
High  Italian  Renaissance  1540 


VENETIAN  RENAISSANCE  ended 
1600 

English  Renaissance  1603 
MOORISH  1610 
Late  Italian  Renaissance  1643 
French  Renaissance  1643 
ELIZABETHAN  1603 
JACOBEAN  1649 
Cromwellian  1659 
CHARLES  II  1685 

William  and  Mary  1702 
Louis  XIII  1643 
QUEEN  ANNE  1714 
Louis  XIV  1714 
Rococo  1774 
Louis  XVI  1793 

FLANDERS  subjugated  by  the  French 

INDIA  MOGUL  EMPIRE  1748 

Directoire  1804 

EMPIRE  1814 

GEORGIAN  1820 

COLONIAL  1820 

VICTORIAN  1901 


8 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  RACES  AND  PEOPLES  AND  DATE  OF  THEIR  ORIGIN 


Black  Race 
(Ethiopian  or 
Negro), 


Yellow  Race 
(Mongolian  or 
Turanian), 


) Tribes  and  peoples  whose  true  home  is  Central  and  Southern 
i Africa. 

f (1)  Chinese  (3500  B.C.),  Burmese,  Japanese,  and  kindred 
1 peoples  of  Eastern  Asia;  (2) Nomad:  Tartars,  Huns,  Par- 
I thians,  Mongols,  etc.,  of  Northern  and  Central  , Asia  and  of 
Eastern  Russia;  (3)  Turks,  Magyars,  Hungarians,  Finns, 
ancient  *Scythians,  Lapps  and  Basques,  of  Europe;  (4) 

| Malays  of  Southeastern  Asia  and  inhabitants  of  many  of 
l the  Pacific  islands;  (5)  Esquimeaux  and  American  Indians. 


r 


r 


White  Race 
or  Caucasian, 


Hamites 


Semites 


North  Coast 


Aryans, 
or  Indo- 
Europeans 


Egyptians,  4000  B.C. 

Libyans  (Berbers,  subsequently  Moors), 

Africa. 

Assyrians,  2286  B.C. 

Phoenicians,  1100  B.C.  (Cyprians,  Rhodians.) 

Hebrews,  1900  B.C.  Empire  of  Shepherd  Kings  in  East- 
ern Egypt  (Hyksos). 

Aramaeans  (occupying  old  Syria,  Mesopotamia  and 
Babylonia). 

Arabians,  571  A.D.  (followers  of  Mohammed,  Saracens). 

f Hindus,  2000  B.C. 

Bactrians. 

Medes,  640  B.C. 

t Persians,  558  B.C.  (followers  of  Mohammed). 

f Greeks,  1900  B.C. 

Romans,  753  B.C. 

Etruscans. 

I Byzantines. 

f Gauls. 

Irish. 

Welsh. 

Scotch. 

Bretons  of  Brittany,  j 


Asiatics . 


Classicals . 


Celts 

originally 
from  Asia, 
2000  B.C. 


Romans 


Celts 


y 


Germanic  I 


French. 

Spaniards. 

Italians. 

Portuguese. 


L 


J 


Teutons H 


Slavs . 


f Germanic  tribes,  Franks  and  Goths, 
j Germans,  Flemish,  Dutch,  Swiss,  Scan- 
dinavians, Swedes,  Norwegians  and 
Danes,  Angles,  Saxons  and  Jutes--the 
| English  sprung  from  the  four  latter 
L tribes. 

( Russians. 
f Poles,  etc. 


* Authorities  differ  regarding  the  Scythians,  who  2000  B.C.  occupied  a vast  section  of  Europe  north  of  the  Black  and 
Caspian  Seas.  Some  believe  the  Scythians  were  Mongols,  others  maintain  Aryan  origin,  from  which  the  Slavs  descended. 


BARBARIC  DESIGN 


BABYLONIAN 

ARCHAIC 

PHCENICI  AN, 

OLD  ARAM/BAN 

X 

% 

! 

1 1 * 

<5^  A 

r\  * 

v i 

W 


HEN  man  the  bar- 
barian carved  some 
mystic  sign  upon  his 
club  or  battle-axe,  he  had  no  art 
in'  his  soul  and  no  conception  of 
Ornament.  For  centuries  that 
are  gone  and  are  still  to  come, 
designs  or  signs  or  marks,  may 
be  regarded  as  designs  to  ex- 
press thought,  without  any  con- 
ception of  an  artistic  idea. 
Hence  we  must  not  regard  Design  and  Ornament  as 
analogous  terms.  Ornament  came  with  civilization. 
Design  was  of  utilitarian  impulse.  It  was  smybolical. 

If  we  contemplate  some  phases  of  Oriental  art, 
especially  the  tribal  forms,  we  find  innumerable  ex- 
amples of  design  that  are  far  from  ornamental. 

Long  before  the  dawn  of  history  we  find  two  dis- 
tinct races  in  Asia,  the  Turanian  or  Mongolian,  and 
the  Caucasian.  The  Mongolian  or  Yellow  race  in- 
cludes the  Chinese,  the  Tartars,  the  Mongols  and 
Turks;  the  Caucasian  race  includes  the  Egyptians, 


Assyrians,  Arabians,  Hindus,  Persians,  Greeks  and 
Romans.  The  broad  plateau  of  Iran  in  Asia  was  in- 
habited on  the  north  by  the  Medians  and  on  the  south 
by  the  Persians.  Many  of  their  people,  together  with 
broken  tribes  of  other  Aryans,  traveled  east  to  the  dis- 


MEANING 

OUTLINE 

CHARACTER, 

B.  C.  4500 

ARCHAIC 

CUNEIFORM, 

B.  C.  2500 

ASSYRIAN, 

B.  C.  700 

IATE 

BABYLONIAN, 
B.C.  500 

I. 

The  sun 

0 

U 

<*T 

2. 

God,  heaven 

3- 

Mountain 

l< 

V 

w 

* 

4- 

Man 

/WIN 

f-JTT 

“ “ 1 | 

5- 

Ox 

T> 

6. 

Fish 

4 

IK 

IK 

9 

i - 


BARBARIC  DESIGN 


trict  adjoining  India,  and  in  the  great  sub-division  of 
the  Turanian  races  of  China  great  hordes  traveled 
west,  until  the  Aryan  and  Turanian  characteristics 
were  merged  in  broken  clans,  the  class  that  we  now 
term  Turkoman. 

Where  civilization  advanced  and  the  arts  flour- 
ished we  have  design  as  a concrete  form  of 
decoration  and  best  exemplified  in  the  work  of 
Persia  and  Arabia,  but  with  the  hundreds  and 
thousands  of  nomadic  tribes  design  had  been 
used  to  express  an  abstract  thought  or  sym- 
bolism without  heed  for  beauty,  and  these  pic- 
torial forms  were  at  best  crude  ornament. 

As  a means  of  expression  the 
nomads  or  wandering  tribes  as  well 
as  the  savages  of  all  countries  early 
devised  a form  of  picture  language, 
and  certain  signs  understood  by 
thetn  became  in  time  tribal  marks 
or  involved  possibly  religious  feel-  /\ 
ing.  Thousands  of  these  people 


the  accompanying  design  was  prepared  to  show  that 
notwithstanding  appearances  the  straight  lines  en- 
closed between  acute  or  obtuse  angles  are  of  the  same 


length. 


the 


usage. 


The  above  is  from  a Greek  tablet 
and  shows  apparently  the  origin  of 
three  borders — the  water  line  border, 
the  barber  pole  and  the  reciprocal 
trefoil  border. 


V 


V 


LJ 


1 t 


A 


lU 


living  only  by  conquest  traveled 
about  from  place  to  place  in  vast 
ravaging  hordes.  One  can  com- 
prehend the  conqueror  of  one  band 
adopting  with  pride  some  symbol 
from  the  trappings  of  his  fallen  foe 
because  this  predatory  instinct  and 
boastfulness  was  manifest  in  the 
Empire  styles,  when  bits  of  Italian 
or  Egyptian  decoration  were  strung 
together  to  commemorate  the  con- 
quests of  Napoleon. 

Then,  again,  in  the  crude  in- 
terchange of  tribal  courtesies  and 
in  the  common  assimilation  of 
migratory  people  signs,  ideograms 
and  phonograms,  having  no  mean- 
ing beyond  being  the  reminder  of 
some  experience,  were  much  used. 

It  is  natural,  moreover,  that  in  the 
use  of  simple  signs  or  de- 
signs the  same  thing 
should  be  commonly  used 
by  many  people  in  many  re- 
mote parts  of  the  world, 
and  parts  of  squares  and 
circles  have  been  used  uni- 
versally for  thousands  of 
years  to  indicate  various 
ideas,  making  it  impossible 
for  one  to  fix  a definite  meaning  for  these  designs  or 
to  determine  by  their  presence  a definite  point  of 
origin. 

The  writer  some  time  ago  had  occasion  to  illus- 
trate the  illusions  which  arise  from  the  use  of  angles, 
and  with  no  thought  but  to  accomplish  this  purpose 


A 


V 


A 


O— < 


A series  of  illusions  respecting  straight  lines 
and  angles ; similar  figures  appear  in  Kurdis- 
tan rugs. 


Alaskan.  “Record  of  a hunt.”  See  text. 

O S 1 ^ III 

Egyptian. 


In  the  preparation  of  the  story  of  Oriental  design 
writer  is  interested  to  note  that  his  illusion  illus- 
trations, prepared  at  a time  when  his  mind  was 
far  from  the  Orient,  may  be  regarded  as  ex- 
cellent examples  of  Mongol  detail.  Every 
figure  in  the  illusion  figures  is  to  be  found  in 
Kurdistan  designs,  emphasizing  the  fact  that 
simple  pictorial  expressions  are  of  world 
They  occur  to  the  minds  of  all  people 
and  of  all  countries,  and  are  not 
sufficiently  intricate  to  constitute 
an  original  thought. 

Perhaps  the  most  important 
influence  on  the  use  of  design  was 
the  common  employment  of  pic- 
ture-writing. The  researches  of 
the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Wash- 
ington, incline  one  to  believe  that 
picture  language  was  introduced  by 
prehistoric  America  to  China. 
Alexander  Speltz,  in  his  great  work 
on  “Styles  of  Ornament,”  encour- 
ages this  belief  by  many  examples 
of  prehistoric  design  from  North 
and  South  America. 

The  native  designs  of  old 
Mexico  suggest  the  Anatolian. 
The  native  designs  of-  the  Aztecs 
suggest  Egyptian,  and  we  com- 
mend the  reader  for  further  study 
of  this  subject  to  “Unknown  Mex- 
ico,” by  Carl  Lumholtz,  or  to  the 
Government  Exploration  Reports 
on  the  Tussayan  and  Hopi  Indians, 
descendants  of  those  living  cen- 
turies ago  in  the  deserted  villages 
of  Arizona  and  Mexico,  Central 
and  South  America. 

In  the  illustration  of 
old  Maya  designs  it  is  not 
difficult  to  trace  motifs 
identical  with  those  of  the 
Mongol  districts  of  the 
Caucasus.  The  Maya  In- 
dians were  the  most  ad- 
vanced of  the  North  Amer- 
ican aboriginal  races.  They 
had  books,  paper,  picture  language,  were  sun  wor- 
shippers, built  well  and  carved  well,  had  paved  roads 
of  stone  and  communicated  by  couriers.  Their  houses 
were  decorated  and  the  temples  of  Yucatan  were  built, 
if  we  are  to  believe  the  archaeologists,  when  Egypt 
was  a wilderness. 


> < 


IO 


BARBARIC  DESIGN 


The  Smithsonian  Institute  has  given 
to  us  a great  number  of  illustrations 
showing  the  sign  language  of  the  Maya, 
and  we  find  here  also  the  tree  of  life,  the 
latch-hook,  the  square  and  rhomboid,  the 
octagon,  the  overlapping  wave  design,  the 
fret,  the  swastika  and  the  trefoil. 

We  can  turn  to  Aztec  and  Peruvian 
decoration  and  find  designs  almost  pure 
Turkestan  and  Caucasian.  Forms  of  a 
cross  that  are  often  seen  in  Caucasian  rugs 
are  illustrated  by  Lumholtz  as  represent- 
ing conventionalized  forms  of  the  Mex- 
ican toto  blossom.  Mexican  water  motifs 
are  the  same  as  Caucasian,  and  the  use  of 
florals  and  geometrical  figures  gives  evi- 
dence of  a common  inspiration — an  in- 
spiration that  nature  gives  to  the  primi- 
tive mind.  There  is  further  interest  in  the 
fact  that  in  all  countries  some  flower— 
the  iris,  the  lotus,  the  lily,  the  acanthus, 
the  palm,  the  poppy,  the  toto  blossom — is 
utilized  for  its  symbolic  significance.  With 
the  Mexican  Indians  flowers,  blossoms 
and  birds  have  a strict  religious  meaning. 

Indeed,  the  Huichol  Indians  never  pluck 
a flower  unless  with  pious  intent.  It  is 
safe  to  assume  that  no  savage  ever  sat 
down  to  the  work  of  ornamentation  un- 
less it  expressed  thought,  and  such 
thoughts  were  naturally  simple  and  con- 
fined to  simple  means.  The  records  of 
an  Alaskan  hunt  we  reproduce  as  an  ex- 
ample from  Meyer’s  “Prehistoric  Times.” 

The  translation  follows : 

I go  by  boat  (indicated  by  a paddle  held 
upright — I sleep  one  night  (hand  at  side  of 
head  denotes  sleep) — on  island  with  two  huts — 

I go  to  another  island — two  people  sleep  there — 
a sea  Hon  I hunt  with  harpoon — I return  by 
boat  with  companion  (indicated  by  two  oars) 
to  my  lodge. 

In  this  system  of  writing  the  char- 
acters are  crude  pictures  of  material 
objects  and  no  extensive  vocabulary 
is  required  to  cover  the  needs  of  a 
savage  people.  A picture  of  an 
eye  would  indicate  the  order  of 
sight,  or  the  personal  pronoun,  or 
vigilance,  or  other  meanings,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  A lot  of 
zigzag  lines  falling  from  a parallelogram  would  in- 
dicate rain. 

The  great  chasm  between  picture  writing  and  sign 
writing  was  partially  bridged  by  the  Chinese  who,  as 
early  as  2000  B.  C.,  employed  a system  wherein  every 
word  of  the  language  was  represented  by  a symbol. 
Then  came  the  Egyptian  system  and  the  Babylonian 


system  of  cuneiform  writing,  2000  B.C., 
a system  generally  adopted  in  Western 
Asia,  employing  the  use  of  a wedge- 
shaped  stylus.  Much  of  the  writing  was 
stamped  upon  clay.  For  thousands  of 
years  the  cuneiform  system  of  writing 
was  lost.  In  1618  de  Sylva  Figueroa,  of 
Spain,  investigated  the  inscriptions  and 
fixed  them  as  Turanian.  Hence  it  is  rea- 
sonable, in  view  of  the  purely  angular 
character  of  Mongol  decoration,  to  trace 
much  of  its  inspiration  to  the  early  knowl- 
edge of  cuneiform  writing. 

In  the  excavations  of  ancient  Troy, 
the  buried  cities  of  Illios  and  Hissarlic, 
certain  decorative  forms  of  these  cunei- 
form records,  found  upon  coins  and  tab- 
lets, have  been  adopted  as  fetishes  of 
the  people,  especially  in  the  Kurdistan  dis- 
trict, much  as  the  people  of  America  adopt 
the  swastika  under  the  vague  impression 
that  it  is  a good-luck  sign. 

From  the  coins  and  tablets  of  these 
old  Trojan  ruins  of  Asia  Minor  we  find 
the  swastika  so  common  and  in  so  many 
forms,  or  rather  alterations,  that  we  be- 
lieve that  the  latch-hook  of  this  district 
and  the  Caucasus,  and  even  of  the  Turko- 
man district,  is  a lingering  swastika  in- 
fluence and  not  a wave  sign.  We  find  in 
Asia  Minor  the  swastika  in  its  true  form 
as  well  as  distortions  of  these  forms, 
sprawly  shapes,  sometimes  representing 
stars  or  trees  or  animals.  It  is  impossible 
to  trace  the  meaning  of  the  signs  because 
we  find  them  among  so  many  people  at 
periods  widely  separate.  The  term  is 
thought  by  some  to  mean  eternity.  The 
swastika  enclosed  within  a circle  gives  a 
suggestion  of  flight,  progress.  We  have 
seen  the  swastika  with  the  extending  lines 
leg-shaped,  sometimes  eight  and  ten  in- 
stead of  four  legged. 

Zmigrodski,  the  anthropologist, 
classifies  these  distortions  under 
what  he  calls  related  swastikas. 
Unquestionably  the  swastika  orig- 
inated as  a thought  expression, 
which  in  time  became  a fixed  sym- 
bol of  general  world  use. 

The  United  States  Government,  in  the  Smith- 
sonian report  of  1894,  published  the  results  of  its  re- 
search and  showed  that  the  swastika  had  been  found 
in  almost  every  part  of  Europe  and  was  identical  with 
the  same  form  used  in  prehistoric  America.  It  was 
known  in  India  and  ancient  Bactria  (East  Turkestan), 
in  Rhodes,  Northern  Europe,  Southern  Europe,  Asia 


InJnnHjnjbi 
uy  «Tg  Ji  mb  v 


Mexican. 


Hopi.  American  Indian. 

ft 

0-  n Ui  %>  % 1)  A 

Chinese. 


1 1 


BARBARIC  DESIGN 


Minor,  Greece,  Rome,  Byzantine,  Northern  Africa, 
Great  Britain  and  America.  Ancient  Troy  was  full  of 
the  swastika,  and  it  appeared  on  the  coins  of  the  classic 
Orient,  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Chaldea  and  Persia. 

The  French  Government  discovered  the  swastika 
throughout  Armenia  and  in  the  Caucasus  district.  So 
any  assumption  that  it  has  restricted  or  local  mean- 
ing is  untenable. 

In  searching  for  the  origin  of  the  star,  the  octagon 
and  the  triangle  we  are  brought  frequently  to  the 
doors  of  Constantinople.  We  may  go  back  to  India 
and  the  Brahmans  and  we  find  the  triangle  as  a sec- 
tarian mark.  The  combination  of  two  triangles  gives 
us  the  six-pointed  star.  The  combination  of  two 
squares  gives  us  the  Mohammedan  eight-pointed  star, 
and  the  five-pointed  star  is  supposed  to  be  a Christian 
symbol.  Yet  if  we  go  back  to  the  period  of  Christian 
enthusiasm  in  the  Byzantine  Empire  we  will  find  the 
Brahman  and  Mohammedan  eight-pointed  star  in  uni- 
versal use.  The  marble  mosaic  which  covered  the 
floors  contained  geometrical  shapes  innumerable.  The 
five-pointed,  six-pointed  and  eight-pointed  star  is  sim- 
ply a geometrical  combination  of  squares  and  circles. 
After  the  fall  of  Constantinople  the  beauty  of  its  deco- 
rative system  was  promptly  copied  by  the  Moham- 
medans, quick  to  perceive  a means  of  beautifying  with- 
out the  use  of  animal  forms,  interdicted  by  the  Koran, 
and  we  trace  this  Byzantine  influence  through  the 
Anatolian  Peninsula  and  the  Caucasus. 

Tradition  states  that  the  crescent  was  adopted  and 
used  in  Constantinople  as  an  omen  of  protection  like 
the  winged  asp  and  ball  of  Egypt.  When  the  Mace- 
donian hordes  approached  old  Byzantium  by  stealth 
the  crescent  moon  arose  and  revealed  their  presence 
and  saved  the  city.  The  crescent  was  then  adopted 
generally  as  a good-luck  symbol.  In  after  years  when 
Contantinople  fell  to  Turkish  dominion  the  crescent 
was  seized  upon  as  a valuable  symbol. 

Geometrical  design  had  a wide  influence  upon 
the  arts  of  all  Asia,  with  the  exception  of  Persia.  The 
Arabians  developed  a remarkable  system  of  strap- 
work,  scroll  and  circular  design  strictly  geometrical, 
and  even  when  the  Arabian  system  became  floriated  it 
was  the  juxtaposition  of  floral  details  geometrically 
arranged  and  interwoven.  We  find  the  same  system 
in  China,  where  geometrical  forms  of  the  fret  similar 
to  the  Greek  fret,  geometrical  circles  and  diamonds 
and  octagons  are  used  universally,  but  have  no  rela- 
tionship with  similar  designs  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Empires.  We  find  in  China  the  eight-point  decoration 
that  is  adopted  generally  through  the  Turkoman  dis- 
trict and  found  frequently  in  Afghanistan  rugs.  It 
implies  Mongol  influence.  The  same  thing  is  common 
in  Gothic  decoration. 


Design  is  not  always  decoration,  but  decoration 


is  always  design. 

^ 4 A A 

A ) /\  c 

^AVp 

*=\  A 

Greek. 


SACRED 

MOUNTAINS 


CONSTELLATION 


There  is  much  that  interests  us  in 
aboriginal  design  in  the 
effort  to  express  some 
material  thought  or  idea 
of  beauty.  But  there  is 
greater  satisfaction  in 
contemplating  a perfect- 
ed system  of  decorative 
unity. 

Decoration  repre- 
sents a development  of 
civilization  and  culture.  The  Arabians  as 
world  conquerors  left  the  imprint  of  their 
decorative  art  for  thousands  of  miles  around 
them,  but  they  absorbed  little,  and  to  the 
end  Arabian  art  was  true  to  its  ancient 
forms. 

With  Persia,  however,  the  best  period 
of  its  art  progress  may  be  traced  direct  to 
the  influence  of  Shah  Abbas,,  who  in  the 
Sixteenth  Century  sent  his  best  artists  to 
Italy,  where  they  studied  under  the  tutelage 
of  the  great  Renaissance  designers.  All  that 
is  most  beautiful  in  Persian  art  may  be 
ascribed  to  the  Renaissance  and  Arabian 
influences. 

We  do  not  forget  that  for  centuries 
before  Christ  the  Persians  were  in  close  in- 
tercourse with  the  Assyrians  and  Egyptians 
and  their  art  flourished  accordingly,  nor 
that  early  Persian  art  was  strongly  As- 
syrian and  Babylonian. 

But  this  was  not  the  art  that  became 
in  years  afterwards  indigenous  to  the  soil, 
the  art  which,  freed  of  Mohammedanism, 
embodies  the  presentation  of  nature  forms, 
floral  and  animal,  and  presents  a unity  of 
design  brought  into  coherent  relationship 
by  the  principles  underlying  the  best  Ital- 
ian school. 

We  can  continue  the  work  of  Arabian 
and  Persian  design  satisfied  with  the  deco- 
rative charm  that  it  possesses.  But  the 
mere  fact  that  with  most  of  the  Oriental 
designs  we  search  for  the  meaning,  the  sym- 
bolic underlying  story  that  is  told,  shows  on 
its  face  that  the  mere  picture  is  not  satis- 
fying, and  as  a decorative  composition  it 
does  not  appeal  to  us,  but  only  interests 


Y.IGHTN  ING- 


SUN 


SYORAA 


RAIN 


because  enigmatical. 


rH 


SWASriKA 


* 


KEY  Of  LIFE 


12 


1 


6 


8 9 


IO  | I 12 


1,  2,  3.  Marks  of  Brahma. 

4,  5,  6.  Latin,  Greek,  St.  An- 
drew’s Cross. 

7,  8,  9.  Chinese  and  Indian 
Swastika. 

9.  Ideogram  of  Ancient  Troy. 


if  Hb  A ft! 

f f ’f  * 

13  14  15  *6 

10.  Maltese  Cross. 

11.  Monogram  of  Christ. 

12.  Tau  Cross  or  Thors  Ham- 
mer, top  line  sometimes  bent 
Y shaped. 


1.  Moslem  Comb  and  Star 
of  Bethlehem,  Turkish. 

2.  Knot  of  Destiny,  Chinese 
origin. 

3.  Effulgent  Star,  Caucasian. 


& 0 


Kurdistan  and  North 
Persian  motifs. 


% 

17  18 

13.  Egyptian  Cross. 
14  and  15.  Celtic. 

16.  Swastika. 

17.  Ancient  Troy. 

18.  Ancient  Georgia. 


I Z 


>3  ■H 


□izsLiAxyn 

6-  _W 


1,  2,  3,  4.  Altar  designs. 

5.  Solomon’s  Signet. 

6,  7,  8,  9.  Forms  of  altar,  or 
tree  of  life. 


Gothic  geometric 
divisions.  Note 
characteristic  of 
Afghanistan. 


Old  Mexico. 


Old  Mexico  (Huichol).  Note  similarity  to  Turkoman,  Caucasian  and  Chinese. 


DESIGN  CHARACTERISTICS. 


EGYPTIAN  DESIGN  DETAILS. 

The  top  line  shows  the  lotus  bud,  pad  and  blossom. 


EGYPTIAN 


EGYPTIAN— Old  Empire,  4000-3000  B.C.  Middle  Em- 
pire, 3000-2100  B.C.  New  Empire,  2100-324  B.C.  Graeco- 
Roman  Revival,  324  B.C.  to  300  A.  D. 

Egypt.  332  B.C.,  became  a Greek  kingdom;  30  B.C. 
became  a Roman  province  until  the  Mohammedan  in- 
vasion, 640  A.D. 

EGYPTIAN  weaving  most  ancient  known  in- 
dustry. Egyptian  linens  famous,  embroidered 
with  gold,  silver  and  purple. 

The  moment  we  leave  the  age  of  savagery  and 
man  clothed  in  animal  skins,  we  reach  the  stage  of 
weaving.  Clothing  was  the  first  necessity  of  mankind. 

Tombs  of  Egypt,  2800  B.C.,  illustrate  weavers  at 
work.  One  shows  a man  weaving  a checkered,  rug. 
Monuments  of  ancient  Egypt  and  Syria  show  the 
manufacture  of  rugs  and  fabrics,  2400  B.C. 

Nine  hundred  and  eight  B.C.,  Egyptian  canopy 
cloths  of  fine  character,  embroidered  and  of  a patch 
character. 

The  history  of  lace  begins  definitely  with  900  A. 
D.,  but  drawn-work  and  nettings  were  of  prehistoric 
origin. 

Fabrics  dating  1000  B.C.  are  preserved  in  the 
Louvre,  Paris. 

Three  thousand  five  hundred  and  fifty  B.C., 
building  of  the  pyramids.  Following  the  Stone  Age, 
came  the  Age  of  Copper,  Age  of  Bronze,  Age  of  Iron. 

As  early  as  2100  B.C.,  Egypt  was  highly  civilized. 
In  buildings  moldings  were  seldom  used.  Chambers 


were  decorated  with  illustrations  representing  in- 
dustries. 

Carvings,  instead  of  standing  out  in  relief,  were 
sunken  and  the  ground  stood  out,  a system  exactly 
opposite  to  the  Assyrian  system,  where  the  ground 
was  depressed  and  the  subject  stood  out  in  relief. 

Decoration  full  of  gold  and  brilliant  colors,  the 
triad  form  being  popular  (black,  yellow  and  red), 
(red,  blue  and  white),  (dark  blue,  light  blue  and 
white),  (cream  color,  blue  and  black),  (dark  red, 
medium  yellow  and  blue). 

Ornaments  were  frequently  in  hieroglyphics. 

Among  motifs  and  designs  were  the  sun,  the 
beetle,  the  cobra  or  serpent,  feathers,  papyrus  buds 
and  reeds,  lotus,  date-palms,  the  lily,  zigzags  for  wa- 
ter ways,  herbs,  animals,  fan-shaped  ornaments,  nude 
figures,  winged  human  figures,  human  faces,  the  ram, 
sparrow  hawk,  sacred  tree. 

Late  Egyptian  furniture  had  rope  or  rush  covered 
seats. 

Egyptian  wall  treatments,  confined  to  frieze  deco- 
rations against  plain  walls.  Couches  were  made  low ; 
no  foot  boards ; small  rests  at  head  to  fit  under  the 
neck.  Stools  often  had  wooden  bottoms,  but  couches 
were  always  plaited.  Six  hundred  B.C.,  seats  were  of 
narrow  strips  of  leather  plaited;  furniture  often  wood 
inlaid  with  metal.  Seats  were  curved  to  fit  the  figure. 


i5 


BABYLONIAN  — ASSYRIAN. 


BABYLONIAN  — ASS  YRIAN-PERSI  AN 


ASSYRIAN,  Persian,  Babylonian  and  even 
Egyptian  arts  in  the  Early  Centuries  B.C.,  were 
so  merged  as  to  be  indistinguishable  to  all  but 
the  most  careful  archaeological  student  (see  “Chart  of 
origins”).  The  illustration  below  is  Persian,  although 
it  contains  distinct  Egyptian  as  well  as  Assyrian  char- 
acteristics. 

Persian  ornament  in  the  popular  conception  dates 
from  the  Islam  or  Mohammedan  period  in  the  Seventh 
Century  A.D. 

BABYLONIAN-ASSYRIAN: 

Old  Babylonian,  4000  B.C. 

Chaldean  Period,  2286-1300 
B.C.  Assyrian  Period,  1300- 
625  B.C.  Median  Period, 

640-558  B.C.  Late  Baby- 
lonian, 608-538. 

Excavations  in  N i n- 
eveh,  Nimroud  and 
Khorsabad  afford  proofs  of 
the  existence  of  civilization 
in  Babylonia  4000  B.C.  But 
in  this  wide  country,  embrac- 
ing Assyria,  Babylonia, 

Egypt,  Chaldea,  Media  and 
Persia,  there  was  such  a mixture  of  peoples,  each  suc- 
cessively subjugated  by  first  one  then  another,  that 
the  arts  of  all  must  be  regarded  as  common  to  the 
whole. 

Three  thousand  B.C.  in  Southern  Babylonia  a 
number  of  independent  cities ; Erech,  Ur,  Larsam ; 
Agade,  Babylon.  Kingdom  of  Elam,  East  of  Baby- 
lonia, supreme  2300  B.C.  About  1900  B.C.  Kingdom 
of  Semitic  Assyrians  founded,  which  later  developed 
the  great  cities  of  Asshur  and  Nineveh. 


Six  hundred  and  sixty-eight  B.C.  Esarhaddon 
king,  Assyria  became  world  power.  As  in  Egypt,  so 
in  the  adjoining  river-valley  countries,  the  lotus  flower 
or  the  lily  played  an  important  role  in  ornamentation. 

In  the  earliest  periods  Assyria  was  famous  for  its 
weaving.  It  is  impossible  to  fix  the  date  of  em- 
broideries or  fancy  needlework,  but  it  is  fair  to  assume 
that  as  weaving  was,  next  to  the  building  of  the  hut 
and  the  making  of  the  battle-axe,  the  first  industry,  it 

was  likewise  the  first  to  par- 
take of  decorative  character. 

In  the  early  period  the 
furniture  was  of  metal  and 
wood  or  wood  inlaid  with 
metal. 

Seven  hundred  B.C. 
magnificent  epoch.  At  Koy- 
unjik  the  palace  had  seventy- 
one  halls  and  chambers,  two 
miles  of  wall  decorations. 
Conspicuous  features  of  de- 
sign were  bulls,  lions  and 
eagles.  At  Nimroud  the 
beams  of  the  palaces  were  of  cedar  wood  carved. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  993  the  walls  of  King 
Solomon’s  Temple  were  covered  with  carved  cedar 
and  olive  wood  in  styles  like  the  Assyrian  stone  sculp- 
tures, utilizing  much  winged  decoration  and  lily  forms. 
At  this  period  Hiram  of  Tyre  was  famous  for  his 
bronze  work.  Much  gold  was  used  in  ornamentation. 
Fabrics  were  ornamented  in  minute  diaper  patterns 
with  bands  or  borders.  The  faces  in  the  mural  deco- 
rations were  in  profile.  The  palm,  date,  vine,  fig  tree, 


i7 


Persian. 


PERSIAN— PHOENICIAN— HEBRAIC— INDIAN 


fern,  lily  and  tall  grass  were  much  used.  The  sacred 
tree  was  conspicuous  in  design,  with  wave  and  guil- 
loche  ornamentations ; fir  cones  radiated  from  rosette 
centers.  Carved  ivory  was  plentiful;  iron  seldom 
used  ; emblems  usually  bronze  ; ornamentation  of  vivid 
color,  gold  and  silver  and  delicate  painting;  eagle- 
headed lions,  winged  bulls,  human  figures  with  wings 
and  eagle  heads.  Babylonia  and  Assyria  in  constant 
war ; their  arts  were  merged.  Assyrian  ornament 
copied  much  that  was  Egyptian. 

Examples  of  Assyrian  furniture  are  very  rare, 
as  the  climate  did  not  contribute  to  the  preservation  of 


Asia  Minor.  The  art  that  we  regard  popularly  as 
Persian  is  the  later  Islam  art  of  Mohammed. 
PHOENICIAN. 

The  Phoenicians  were  commercial  people.  Two 
thousand  B.C.  they  were  settled  on  the  coast  of 
Syria  and  had  trading  stations  and  colonies  in  Greece, 
Italy,  Gaul  and  Africa.  They  were  traders  and  had 
no  art  beyond  that  of  local  jewelers. 

HEBRAIC. 

The  Hebrews  of  Palestine  were  dependent  on  the 
Phoenicians  for  their  technique,  the  Mosaic  laws 
forbidding  pictures  and  images  prevented  the  free  de- 


woods, which  occasionally  in  Egypt  lasted  through  the 
centuries.  In  many  places  only  the  bronze  and  ivory 
mountings  of  feet  and  ends  of  chairs  have  been  found. 

The  furniture  of  the  Hebrews  was,  in  the  early 
centuries,  of  the  same  character  as  Assyrian. 

PERSIAN — 558  B.C.  Persian  Empire,  558-330  B.C.  Par- 
thian Empire.  250  B.C.-220  A.D.  Sassanian  Empire,  220- 
641  A.  D.  Mohammedan  Persia,  641  A.D. 

Disunion  and  unrest,  in  the  Asia  of  olden  times, 
confused  the  arts.  Ancient  Persian  Ornament 
shows  few  characteristic  peculiarities,  Egyptian,  As- 
syrian, Babylonian  and  Grecian  influence  being  all  dis- 
cernible. Indeed,  the  buildings  of  the  Persian  kings 
were  erected  by  men  who  were  prisoners  in  the  coun- 
tries of  Babylonia,  Egypt  and  the  Grecian  colonies  of 


velopment  of  art  among  the  Jews.  King  Solomon’s 
palace  and  the  temples  were  the  work  of  Phoenicians. 

INDIAN— 2000  B.C.  First  Period,  2000  B.C.-1525  A.D. 
Brahma,  1400-500  B.C. ; Buddha,  500  B.C.  Mogul  Em- 
pire, 1525-1748  A.D.  English  Control,  1748-1858  A.D. 
English  Empire,  1858  A.D. 

Archaeological  research  reaches  no  farther  back 
in  India  than  a few  centuries  B.C.  This  earlv 
art  was  influenced  by  Persian  and  Grecian.  The  term 
Indian  is  geographical  and  has  no  ethnological  signifi- 
cance. There  is  no  such  thing  as  homogeneous  Indian 
art.  It  was  a country  of  many  races,  Aryan  and  Tur- 
anian, of  Brahman,  Buddhist  and  Mohammedan  de- 
velopment. The  Mohammedan  phase,  which  was  the 
most  lasting,  will  be  considered  later. 


18 


GRECIAN— ROMAN  — POMPEIIAN 


GRECIAN  — Graeco-Pelasgic  1900-1384  B.C. ; Doric,  700 
B.C. ; Ionic,  600  B.C. ; Corinthian,  290  B.C. ; Hellenistic. 
290-168  B.C. ; Etruscan,  1040-238  B.C. 

G keeks  inherited  the  arts  of  Persia  and  Babylonia. 

Starting  with  1900  B.C.,  the  Pelasgic  period 

was  based  on  Assyrian.  Early  Greek  couches  nothing 
more  than  large  stools.  In  the  Sixth  Century  B.C. 
Greek  and  Roman  beds  were  of  marble,  terra-cotta, 
bronze,  wood,  bone  and  ivory ; used  for  reclining  at 
meals  as  well  as  sleeping.  Ancient  Greeks  learned 
their  art  from  Egyptians,  but  a purely  decorative 
Greek  device  is  the  antljemion,  which  with  the  acan- 
thus can  be  traced  back  hundreds  of  years  in  Egyp- 


tian forms.  The  Greek  system  was  to  build  within 
squares.  Frets  were  common.  Decorators  painted  in 
fresco  and  in  strong  colors;  blue  and  Tyrian  purple 
much  in  use.  At  an  early  date  conceived  a system  of 
applying  blue  in  proportions  equal  to  yellow  and  red 
combined,  yellow  in  three  parts,  red  five  parts  and  blue 
eight  parts.  First  Greek  and  Roman  couches  covered 
with  skins  or  felt  materials.  Mattresses  used  Third 
Century  B.C.  with  coverlets  and  draperies,  in  broad 
stripes  of  solid  colors;  pillows  various  shapes  covered 
with  linen,  wool,  leather  and  silk.  Pillows  filled  with 
refuse  wool,  vegetable  fiber,  feathers.  No  record  of 
uses  of  cotton.  Silk  much  used  and  draperies  described 


Greek  Ornament. 


I 


19 


Pompeiian. 


WALL  DECOKATlOn  in  THE 
CASA  DEL  LABIPjnTO  POttPEu 


Roman. 


as  having  nap  on  one  or  two  sides  (velvet)  in  color- 
ings of  purple,  scarlet  and  gold.  Fabrics  woven  in 
pattern  or  embroidered.  Thin  linens,  tapestries. 
Much  material  brought  from  Babylonia. 

Greek  furniture  inlaid  with  precious  metals; 
bronze  and  polished  silver  mirrors.  Beds  of  wood 
often  ornamented  in  tortoise  shell,  veneers  of  fine 
wood.  Wood  finished  in  oil,  wax  and  stains,  some- 
times painted,  never  varnished ; solid  carvings. 

Tenth  Century  B.C.,  Homer  the  poet  referred  fre- 
quently to  the  bed. 

Seventh  Century  B.C.,  couches  were  made  with 
ledges  built  on  a rectangular  plan  as  well  as  with 
turned  ledges.  First  they  were  frame  works  ledged 
with  a flat  surface  upon  which  furs  were  piled  up. 
Then  the  upper  part  was  furnished  with  headboards 
and  footboards. 

Sixth  Century  B.C.  gives  us  beds  so  draped  that 
the  construction  of  the  frame  is  hidden. 


In  the  Fifth  Century  B.C.  beds  and  furniture  were 
common,  rectangular  and  turned  legs  being  used. 
Wood,  bronze  and  other  metals.  Some  authorities 
maintain  that  iron  was  used  in  beds  as  early  as  427  B.C. 

Four  hundred  B.C.,  Greek  embroiderers  produced 
beautiful  results. 

Pelasgic  Greek  was  largely  based  on  Assyrian 
ornamentation.  The  Greek  honeysuckle  can  be  traced 
to  Assyria,  also  the  vitruvian  scroll  and  the  guilloche. 

Etruscan — A bronze  Etruscan  bed  exists  from  the 
Seventh  Century  B.C. 

ROMAN— 753  B.C.-455  A.D. 

Roman.  753  B.C.,  Roman  houses  divided  into  sep- 
arate rooms  for  dresses,  cupboards,  lockers, 
lounges,  articles  of  luxury.  Fabrics  of  many  kinds 
developed  the  Greek  style.  Great  love  of  pomp  and 
splendor.  Elaborated  the  Corinthian  principles; 


Roman. 


22 


utilized  pineapple,  vine,  palm,  ivy,  poppy,  winged  dol- 
phins, winged  horses.  Like  the  Grecians,  the  Roman 
wall  treatments  were  confined  to  frieze  decorations 
against  the  plain  wall.  First  couches  covered  with 
wool  material  and  skins,  in  time  became  elaborated 
beds  with  head  and  foot  pieces.  No  upholsterings  ex- 
cept movable  pillows.  Marble  couches  were  common, 
and  wood  beds  ornamented  in  precious  metals,  tortoise 
shell  and  ivory.  Late  Roman  furniture  had  rush  and 
reed  plaited  seats.  Beds  used  for  reclining  at  meals. 

Roman  furniture  was  decorated  with  paintings 
and  inlay  veneer,  Tarsia  work  forming  complex  deco- 
rations. Roman  houses  were  furnished  with  cup- 
boards, shelves,  wardrobes,  lockers  and  general  furni- 
ture superior  in  comfort  to  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth 
Centuries,  Europe. 

Ancient  Phrygian  and  Lydians  occupying  western 
Anatolia  made  embroideries  at  a period  prehistoric. 
The  Roman  word  Phrygio  means  embroiderer. 

POMPEIIAN— 100  B.C.-79  A.D. 

Pompeiian.  Development  of  the  Roman  arts  which 
finally  became  almost  pure  Greek;  beautiful 
mosaics,  still  life,  human  and  divine  figures,  complete 
pictures  on  the  walls  which  were  frequently  painted 
in  reproduction  of  oil  paintings  by  Greek  masters. 
Pompeiian  wall  space  divided  into  dado,  middle  and 
upper  section,  dado  generally  black  with  simple  orna- 
ments ; purple,  green,  blue  or  violet  middle  space  en- 
lightened with  one  or  more  figures  or  landscapes,  hav- 
ing one  or  more  borders.  Upper  space  usually  white. 
System  of  dark  dadoes  and  light  friezes  generally  em- 
ployed. Delicate  garlands,  fruits,  masks,  animals,  imi- 
tating nature.  (In  England  1762-1792  the  brothers 
Adam  almost  reproduced  Pompeiian  style.) 


WALL  DECORATION. 

Grecian  and  Roman — In  Greece  much  modeling 
in  plaster  and  stucco,  drawn  upon  a coat  of  wet  plas- 
ter spread  on  the  wall  and  built  up.  Fresco  and  tem- 
pera or  distemper  painting  widely  practiced.  Decora- 
tive borders  frescoed  and  painted  in  subjects  religious 
as  well  as  legendary,  showing  hundreds  of  Greek 
and  Roman  gods ; modern  or  superior  deities ; the  Genii 
and  inferior  deities;  the  demi-gods  and  heroes,  and 
illustrations  of  events  in  Greek  and  Roman  mythology. 
Statuary  and  sculpture,  as  well  as  paintings,  partook  of 
these  subjects.  Greeks  love  color.  Used  it  in  ex- 
travagant proportions  in  their  paintings  and  frescoes. 
Massive  walls  show  not  only  historical  and  religious 
subjects,  but  paintings  of  still  life,  city  and  country 
scenes,  flowers  and  nature  showing  perspective.  Un- 
like Egypt  and  Assyria  where  walls  were  all  cov- 
ered, Greek  and  Roman  walls  were  usually  treated 
with  deep  friezes  or  upper  thirds.  Ceilings  were  elab- 
orate, divided  into  geometric  sections,  octagonal  forms 
and  squares.  Mosaic  brought  to  its  greatest  perfection 
for  wall  pictures,  pavements  and  floors. 

Pompeiian— Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  were 
centers  of  late  art  of  highest  Roman  type.  Myth  and 
religion  subservient  to  the  beautiful.  Perspective 
scenes  elaborately  painted  ; gods,  hill  and  valley,  palaces 
and  cottages,  water-views,  mountains,  scenes  of  travel, 
commerce  and  warfare.  High  dadoes  filled  with  model 
figures. 

In  private  houses  walls  were  frequently  com- 
pletely covered  by  paintings  executed  direct  on  plaster. 
Sometimes  divided  into  panels  with  small  pictures  in 
minute  panels  above  larger  panels.  Mosaic  work  of 
most  exquisite  character. 


23 


Pompeiian. 


CELTIC  ORNAMENT. 

The  floriated  form  is  the  Romanesque  influence  developing  about  700  A.D.  The  animal  form  is  the  Scandinavian 

influence. 


Types  of  Scandinavian  Furniture. 


NORTHERN 


SCANDINAVIAN  OR  NORTHERN— 100- 1299  A.D. 

SCANDINAVIAN:  A 
geographical  term 
covering  Sweden, 
Norway  and  Denmark. 
Northern  or  Norseman  was 
an  adjective  term  applying 
not  only  to  the  Scandina- 
vians but  to  the  men  of  the 
“North  Country.” 

The  term  Norman  was  a 
contraction  of  Norseman, 
the  people  living  just 
north  of  the  Gallic  country. 

Scandinavia  until  nearly  1000  A.D.  was  pagan. 
Its  art  reflected  in  a realistic  manner  the  traditions  of 
the  country. 

According  to  Scandinavian  legends  there  were 
wrapped  in  the  history  of  the  country’s  origin  in- 
trigue, treasure  and  murder.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
tell  the  story  (see  history),  but  decorative  art  util- 


ized a system  of  interlacements  not  balanced  like  the 
Celtic,  but  confused  lines  and  chaotic  traceries 
intermingled  with  figures  of  the  otter,  the 
dragon,  the  horse,  bags  of  treasures,  human  figures 
in  conflict. 

The  Celts  and  • Scandinavians  became  in  time 
closely  related.  - From  1000  to  1100  A.D.  Celtic  influ- 
ence was  felt  on  account  of  the  Celtic  missionaries  who 
went  north  from  Ireland  and  preached  the  doctrines 
of  Christ  in  the  Nbrth  country.  But  after  the  year 
1100  we  find  plant  life  introduced,  realistic  verdure 
of  Roman  character,  the  same  that  prevailed  among 
the  Normans  and  Anglo-Saxons  who  at  this  time  were 
enthusiastic  in  religion  and  naturally  absorbed  the  art 
characteristics  of  the  papal  states. 

CELTIC— 2000  B.C.-1100  A.D. 

The  Celtic  nation  of  Western  Europe  was  anni- 
hilated before  -the  Christian  era,  but  the  Celts 
settling  in  Great  Britain,  principally  in  Ancient  Hiber- 
nia (Ireland)  left  lasting  evidence  of  their  art  even 


On  the  left, 
Scandinavian  or- 
nament ; on  the 
right,  Celtic. 


25 


SCANDINAVIAN  ORNAMENT. 


NORTHERN 


during  the  sway  of  paganism  which  prevailed  up  to 
400  A.D.  Celtic  art  showed  interlaced  curved  lines 
sometimes  utilizing  exaggerated  bird  forms  inter- 
woven, but,  unlike  Scandinavian,  the  interlacements 
showed  balanced  relation. 

From  900  to  1100  A.D.  Romanesque  influence  was 
strong  in  Celtic  art,  due  to  the  enthusiasm  and  pre- 
eminence of  the  Irish  in  religion,  art  and  education. 
Ireland,  independent  up  to  1172,  was  conquered  by 
the  English.  Celtic  art  underwent  a radical  change 
by  the  introduction  of  Romanesque  floral  characteris- 
tics during  the  Tenth  Century.  Intersection  was  char- 
acteristic of  the  art  as  in  Moresque  and  Arabian,  but 
intersection  in  Celtic  art,  unlike  the  geometric  Moorish, 
or  the  flat  conventionalized  vegetation  and  leaf  forms 
suggested  by  Arabian,  is  always  intersection  of  simple 
circular  or  curved  bands,  sometimes  introducing  ani- 
mal or  bird  forms.  When  dragons  and  animal  forms 
are  introduced  one  may  detect  Scandinavian  influence. 


Balanced  relations  prevail  in  Celtic  intersection 
design. 

RUSSIAN— 500  A.D. 

Ornament  of  Celtic  character  is  often  seen  in  what 
is  known  as  Russian  art.  Russia  was  settled 
862  A.D.  by  Scandinavians.  Russia  developed  during 
the  Romanesque  period  up  to  1100,  a period  of  high 
religious  fervor,  and  this  period  affected  the  char- 
acteristics of  Scandinavian  art.  Subsequent  to  1100 
Oriental  influence  was  strong  in  Russia. 

NORMAN,  ENGLAND— 1066-1189  A.D.  (See  Roman- 
esque.) 

The  Normans  were  the  Norsemen  and  inherited 
the  early  Scandinavian  arts ; but  at  the  time  the 
Normans  gained  a foothold  in  Normandy,  911  A.D., 
and  at  the  time  they  conquered  England,  1066,  they 
were  under  the  French-Romanesque  art  influence. 


BYZANTINE 


BYZANTINE — 328-500,  Roman-Christian,  550-800,  Orien- 
tal splendor.  850-1005,  Macedonian  or  Roman  Classi- 

BYZANTINE  o r n a- 
mentation  covers 
three  periods.  The 
first  from  328,  when  By- 
zantium, under  Constan- 
tine, became  capital  of  the 
Eastern  Division  of  the 
great  Roman  Empire,  and 
Christianity  was  made  the 
established  State  religion. 
Most  distinctive  epoch,  un- 
der Justinian,  was  from 
527  to  about  600.  A pe- 
riod of  torpor  followed  un- 
til 850,  when  under  Macedonian  rule  it  became  classic. 

The  close  historical  relations  between  Byzantine 
and  the  Roman-Italian  people  naturally  merged  the 
arts,  and  we  have  terms  confusing. 

Mediaeval  art  is  arbitrarily  fixed  between  450  and  1150. 
Romanesque  art  is  the  art  influenced  by  the  Romans 
from  700  to  1100,  when  Gothic  began. 

Lombardic  Romanesque,  the  Romanesque  of  the  Lom- 
bards, began  773. 

Early  Christian  began  330,  extending  over  200  years. 
Norman  Romanesque  was  the  Romanesque  of  the  Nor- 
mans, beginning  911  and  finding  its  best  expression  in 
England  subsequent  to  the  conquest  of  the  Normans,  1066, 
hence  sometimes  called  English  Romanesque. 

Prior  to  550  the  term  Early  Christian  applied  to 
that  period  when  Christianity  was  accepted  as  the  State 
religion  by  the  Byzantine  Empire.  Christian  sym- 
bolism soon  found  its  way  into  Byzantine  art,  and  from 
the  dismemberment  of  the  Roman  Empire,  455,  these 
Christian  characteristics  of  design  were  absorbed  and 


cism. 


Chair  of  Dagobert ; 
Seventh  Century. 


adopted  generally  outside  of  Byzantium,  but  espe- 
cially by  the  Goths  who  ruled  Italy  until  555,  as  well 
as  by  the  Lombards  who  settled  in  Northern  Italy 
568. 

Byzantine  art  was  characterized  by  sharp  acan- 
thus foliage  united  with  Christian  emblems,  circle, 
cross,  crown,  vine,  dove,  peacock ; figure  sculpture 


Byzantine  fabric,  showing  the  ogival  form  of  design. 


27 


BYZANTINE 


rarely  used,  group  figures  done  in  mosaics.  Interlac- 
ing circles,  interlacing  crosses  in  fret  work,  interlacing 
guilloches  finally  conspicuous. 

FABRICS. 

Fabrics  precedent  of  paintings.  Ancient  Babylon 
renowned  for  its  needlecraft.  All  other  nations  learned 
their  art  from  Babylon,  beginning  with  decoration  of 
animal  skins,  embroidering,  mat-plaiting  and  finally 
weaving. 

We  can  go  back  to  3000  B.C.  for  a simple  weav- 
ing produced  by  a simple  interchange  of  warp  and 
weft,  but  the  complex  manipulation  of  shuttles  produc- 
ing figures  without  embroidering  or  other  extraneous 
aids  was  not  known  until  200  A.D.,  when  it  was,  un- 
questionably, undertaken  by  Syrian  weavers  of  the 
Eastern  Roman  Empire. 

Wool.  Egypt,  mistress  of  advanced  civilization, 
employed  wool,  hemp  and  flax. 

Cotton.  Greeks  unacquainted  with  cotton  until 
333  B.C.  The  plant  was  indigenous  to  India,  and  not 
until  the  invasion  of  Alexander  the  Great  did  it  be- 
come known  to  Europe. 

Embroidery.  In  the  earliest  ages  animal  skins, 
before  the  age  of  weaving,  frequently  embroidered  or 
decorated  with  stitches.  Early  Assyrians  used  em- 
broidery. Egyptians  and  Greeks  famous  in  the  art. 
Ancient  Babylon,  Egypt  and  Chaldea  understood  the 
art  thoroughly. 

Beginning  with  Christian  era  an  active  commerce 
introduced  Indian  and  Chinese  stuffs,  and  the  Italian, 
Teutonic  and  French  craftsmen  were  quick  to  adopt 
Oriental  methods.  Art  of  embroidering  became  gen- 
erally understood.  Applique  work  was  also  under- 


taken as  well  as  tapestry  weaving.  Byzantine  Empire 
from  350  to  700  A.D.  knew  no  limit  to  extravagance; 
decoration  conspicuous  in  griffins,  unicorns,  lions, 
tigers,  elephants,  eagles,  peacocks,  large  and  small  cir- 
cular bands,  medallion  shapes,  golden  apples,  palms, 
shrubs  and  flowers.  Textile  design  decorated  with 
wheels  or  circular  bands,  lozenge  patterns,  squares, 
hexagons,  octagons,  stripes,  beasts  and  birds. 

Biblical  and  mythological  subjects;  fabrics  largely 
used  for  hangings  between  colonnades  as  portieres. 

A favorite  arrangement  of  pattern  employed  pairs 
of  animals,  or  pairs  of  birds  confronted  and  separated 
by  the  sacred  tree  of  the  Persians. 

Silk.  Although  commonly  woven  in  China,  1200 
B.C.,  not  woven  in  Europe  until  500  A.D.,  when  the 
Emperor  Justinian  secured  through  two  Persian 
monks  a number  of  silk  cocoons  and  worms  which 
they  smuggled  from  China. 

Six  hundred  A.D.  Sicily,  as  well  as  Northern 
Egypt,  was  making  silks. 

Four  hundred  A.D.  Egyptian  and  Roman  tap- 
estries well  known.  Roman  silks,  possibly  Syrian  or 
Persian  manufacture,  were  sarcenets  and  taffetas, 
damasks,  brocatelles,  lampas  and  velvets,  and  the  same 
period  produced  admirable  tapestries  and  embroider- 
ies. Byzantium  became  the  seat  for  European  silk 
cultivation,  and  for  five  centuries,  together  with 
Corinth  and  Athens,  was  prolific  in  weave  craft. 

FURNITURE. 

Tables,  cbairs  and  beds  followed  the  Roman 
style,  the  legs  often  of  turned  wood.  Ivory,  carved 
and  inlaid,  and  metal,  much  used ; enamels  and 
gold,  bronze  and  inlaid  woods  employed.  Chair  of 
Dagobert  (600)  a fair  example  of  the  elaborateness  of 
the  period.  It  is  of  gilt-bronze  and  one  of  the  earliest 
pieces. 


Saracenic.  Eleventh  Century  Silk  Damask,  showing  Persian 
and  Byzantine  influence. 


28 


BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT. 

Showing  Oriental  as  well  as  Classic  influence  of  Tenth  Century. 


BYZANTINE  ORNAMENT. 


No.  1.  Perso-Byzantine,  700  A.D.  No.  2.  Romanesque,  1100  A.D.,  style  of  pattern  evolved  by  system  of  intersecting 
circles;  popular  at  the  beginning  of  the  Gothic  period.  No.  3.  French  or  German  Romanesque,  1100  A.D.  No.  4. 
Section  of  style  showing  circles  joined  together  by  smaller  circles;  a system  of  design  in  vogue  1000  A.D.  No.  S. 
French,  Saracenic  influence,  1100  A.D.  No.  6.  French-Romanesque,  1100  A.D.  No.  7.  Hispano-Saracenic,  1200  A.D. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  — ROMANESQUE 


IN  T H E study  of  Early  Christian,  Byzantine  and 
Romanesque  art  one  must  never  lose  sight  of 
the  fact  that  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of 
these  periods  the  Orient  wielded  an  influence. 
In  328,  while  preparing  for  battle,  Constantine,  Em- 
peror of  Rome,  saw  a cross  in  the  sky,  and  accepting 
it  as  an  omen  he  embraced  the  Christian  religion.  The 
capital  of  his  new  Empire  was  Byzantium,  which 
name  he  changed  to  Constantinople,  and  the  Byzantine 
Empire  at  the  outstart  covered  much  of  Asia  Minor, 
Arabia,  Egypt,  North  Africa  and  the  country  now 
Bulgaria  and  Greece.  Georgia,  that  portion  of  the 
Caucasus  frequently  called  Iberia,  appears  first  in  au- 
thentic history  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  but 
in  the  Fourth  Century  it  was  part  of  the  Byzantine 
Empire. 

From  550  to  800  Byzantine  art  was  gorgeous  in 
Oriental  splendor.  The  Saracens  carried  Islam  art 
throughout  Persia,  Palestine,  Syria  and  Egypt  in  the 
Seventh  Century,  over  Africa  and  Spain  in  the  Eighth 
Century,  and  Lower  Italy  in  the  Ninth  Century. 

To  arrive  at  a definite  understanding  of  the  char- 
acter of  design  employed  during  the  early  Christian 
and  Romanesque  periods  we  must  consider  two  es- 
sentials, Origin  and  Use. 


In  the  Romanesque  period  there  was  no  direct 
relationship  between  the  designs  of  mosaic,  tile,  stained 
glass,  furniture,  carving,  rugs,  tapestries,  silks  and 
other  fabrics. 

Tiles  had  been  made  for  centuries  and  patterns 
had  been  repeated  and  re-repeated.  Colored  glass 
was  made  by  the  Egyptians  2000  years  B.C.,  but  the 
earliest  stained-glass  windows  are  recorded  as  525 
A.D.  None,  however,  is  known  to  be  still  in  exist- 
ence made  prior  to  1 108.  Early  examples  found  in 
Romanesque  windows  of  this  date  have  little  medal- 
lions with  primitive  figures  and  ornaments,  the  pat- 
terns reflecting  the  spirit  of  design  which  had  been 
done  in  textiles  four  and  five  hundred  years  previously. 

In  mechanical  weaving,  a repeated  pattern  must 
have  fixed  dimensions,  a restriction  not  affecting  em- 
broidering, tapestry  making  or  mosaic  work. 

We  have  already  seen  that  wools  and  linens,  tap- 
estries and  embroideries  were  employed  back  in  the 
earliest  ages.  Simple  mechanical  weaving  was  known 
in  Egypt  3000  B.C.,  but  the  complex  manipulation  of 
shuttles  whereby  figures  were  produced  without  em- 
broidering was  not  practised  until  200  A.D. 


3i 


NORMAN  ROMANESQUE.  1 0 00—  1 1 0 0. 


MEDIAEVAL  FURNITURE.  450—1150. 


Romanesque.  900-1100. 


Illustrations  1,  2,  3 are  doubtless  tile  illustrations,  follow- 
ing the  simple  forms  used  in  mechanical  textile  weaving  200 
A.D.  The  motifs  here  used  are,  however,  heraldic.  The 
heraldic  forms  were  adopted  during  the  period  of  the  First 
Crusades,  1096  (the  seven  Christian  Crusades  ending  1270). 

Illustration  4 follows  the  textile  forms  of  the  early  By- 
zantine, but  the  details  filled  in  suggest  the  Saracenic. 

Illustrations  5,  6,  7 follow  the  interlacement  system,  which 
beginning  with  the  Roman  was  revived  with  the  Romanesque 
and  developed  with  the  Gothic. 

Illustration  9,  like  illustration  4,  is  of  Byzantine  origin 
with  Romanesque  development  1000. 


Illustrations  1,  2,  3,  4 and  7 Romanesque,  direct  Roman 
origin. 

Illustration  5 shows  the  framing  which  developed  just 
prior  to  the  Gothic,  1100. 

Illustrations  6 and  8 are  Romanesque,  showing  connecting 
circles,  800. 

Illustrations  9,  10,  11  represent  the  Arabian  or  Saracenic 
development  of  the  ogival  form  of  design  conspicuous  in 
Lower  Italy,  900-1000. 

The  “ogival”  form  relates  to  the  form  of  design  developed 
from  800  to  1100  A.D.,  where  joining  circles  were  brought 
to  acute  angles  at  points  of  junctures,  forming  ovals  or 
ogival  shapes. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MECHANICAL  TEXTILE  DESIGN  UP  TO  THE  GOTHIC  PERIOD. 


The  development  of  design  was  necessarily  slow ; 

for  many  years  repeat  patterns  were  of  the  sim- 
plest character. 

B.C.  Design  consisted  (1)  of  repeated  lines,  spots, 
bands  or  stripes;  (2)  crossed  lines  or  stripes;  (3) 
by  changing  colors  of  lines,  checks  and  trellises 
were  produced;  (4)  by  changing  proportions, 


plaids  were  produced;  (5)  then  came  rectangular 
patterns  and  diamond  shapes. 

100  A.D.  Development  of  circular  or  square  frame. 

200-600  A.D.  Squares  or  circles  filled  possibly  with 
floral  detail  suggested  by  the  Persian  and  Syrian 
weavers.  The  same  sort  of  thing  was  repeated 


34 


iCARLY  CHRISTIAN— ROMANESQUE 


i};  Gr 

again  five  hundred  or.  hundred  years  after- 
wards  in  simple  stained-glass  effects. 

400-600  A.D.  BrokehJ^iftrcles  or  circles  joining  the 
upper  and  lowe&segments  and  spread  out  to  form 
bands.  ■J' 

600-1100  A. Eh  /The  use  of  circles  continued,  but  they 
were  nov/  linked  together,  large  circles  being 
joined  together  by  smaller  circles  at  the  points  of 
contact.  The  designs  in  and  out  of  these  circles 
became  more  ornamental,  developing  by  the  end 
of  the  Romanesque  period  great  elaboration,  and 


hexagons  (Saracenic)  arranged  with  geometrical 
nicety  and  elaborated  in  design. 

Up  to  and  including  1100  a common  type  of  de- 
sign was  the  persistency  of  balanced  groupings  of 
birds,  animals  or  men,  facing  or  back  to  back. 

From  800  to  1100  saw  the  development  of  the 
ogival  form  or  that  form  of  design  where  the  joining 
circles  were  brought  to  acute  angles  at  points  of  junc- 
ture forming  ovals  or  ogival  shapes.  The  ogival  form 
continued,  developing  greater  and  greater  elaboration 
through  the  Gothic  period. 


EARLY  CHRIST  I AN- BYZANTINE- ROMANESQUE 


Tp  he  accompanying  chart  shows  better  than  anything  else  the  related  periods  of  design  which  followed  the  Byzantine  and  developed 
1 finally  into  the  Gothic.  Early  Christian  naturally  expressed  the  Byzantine  or  first  Christian  expression  in  art  where  that  art  symbolized 
the  Christian  faith.  As  time  progressed  the  Romanesque  period  developed,  which  was  a period  of  Roman  revival. 


BYZANTINE. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN. 


328 — 500  Roman  Chris- 
tian Period.  Constantine, 
Emperor,  became  protector 
of  Christians  and  the  Em- 
pire constituting  the  Eastern 
divisions  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, 550. 


\550— 800.  .ORIENTAL 
PERIOD.  This  period  was 
largely  affected  by  the  Ori- 
ental influence  surrounding 
Byzantine. 


330 — 600.  Early  Chris- 
tian. A term  arbitrarily 
applied  to  the  art  of  the 
countries  influenced  by  the 
religious  enthusiasm  of  the 
Byzantine  Empire,  by  the 
GOTHS  of  TEUTONIC  and 
SPANISH  territory,  the 
early  LOMBARDS  who  set- 
tled in  ITALY,  568,  and  the 
Franks,  who  under  Clovis 
(the  first  of  the  Merovin- 
gians to  adopt  Christianity) 
became  a Christian  kingdom 
about  500  A.D. — 750. 


850—1005.  CLASSIC  PERIOD.  Reflecting  the 
Roman  spirit,  which  had  already  affected  the  Italian, 
German  and  French  arts.  Christian  symbolism  did  not 
again  become  conspicuous  until  the  beginning  of  the 
Gothic,  1100. 


bo  rt 
to  y. 

< g 

>» . o 
O 

.SJ'sjs  cnj 

•ri  ^4  rt  «— i 

3 S-o 


H.2 


328 


600 

700 

711 

774 


911 

1066 

1(00 


ROMANESQUE. 

700 — 1100.  A style  affected  by  the  Roman  art  developing  about 
700  and  lasting  until  1100,  the  beginning  of  the  Gothic. 

711.  THE  GOTH  kingdom  of  Spain  was  destroyed  by  the 
Moors  and  from  this  developed  a Spanish  art  which  was  largely 
Moorish  affected  by  the  ROMANESQUE. 

In  774  Charlemagne  destroyed  the  Lombardic  Kingdom  and 
became  Governor  of  Italy.  The  LOMBARDS  had  entered  Italy 
from  Scandinavian  territory  and  founded  powerful  nation  568  A.D. 
They  conquered  almost  all  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  except  Venice, 
Ravenna,  Naples  and  Rome,  and  in  later  years  their  ROMAN- 
ESQUE art  became  more  strongly  BYZANTINE.  The  period 
showed  the  EARLY  CHRISTIAN,  the  BYZANTINE  and  ROMAN- 
ESQUE character. 

In  the  Southern  sections  of  their  territory,  especially  Sicily, 
there  developed  by  the  invasion  of  the  Mohammedans  a SARA- 
CENIC art. 

NORMAN  was  the  ROMANESQUE  of  the  Normans  who  911 
came  down  from  the  North  country,  gaining  a foothold  in  Nor- 
mandy and  Brittany.  In  1066  conquered  England  where  NORMAN 
ROMANESQUE  was  often  called  ENGLISH  ROMANESQUE. 

End  of  Romanesque  Period  and  beginning  of  Gothic. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF 

300  A.D.  Weaving  was  understood  in  Egypt.  Pos- 
sibly earlier  in  Babylonia.  Silk  weaving  intro- 
duced from  China,  where  it  was  practised  at  a 
remote  period. 

200  A.D.  Complicated  mechanical  weaving  done  by 
Syrian  weavers  in  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire. 

300  A.D.  Silks  well  known  to  Romans.  Persian  as 
well  as  Syrian  manufacture.  Egyptian  and 
Roman  tapestries  in  use. 

500  A.D.  First  production  of  European  ornamental 
silks — sarcenet  and  taffeta  ; Roman  and  Byzantine. 
Constantinople  imported  looms  for  weaving  silks 
in  the  Persian  and  Indian  styles.  Introduced 
sericulture  from  Chinese  cocoons  smuggled  into 
Constantinople  by  Persian  monks,  and  became  a 
seat  for  European  silk  cultivation  and  manu- 
facture. Produced  taffetas,  damasks,  brocatelles, 
lampas,  velvets,  embroideries,  tapestries,  and  for 
five  centuries  Constantinople,  Corinth,  Thebes  and 
Athens  were  prolific  in  weave  craft. 


TEXTILE  WEAVING 

600  A.D.  Northern  Egypt  made  silken  fabrics. 

700  A.D.  Spain  in  latter  part  of  700  made  progress 
in  silk  weaving.  Syrian  silk  merchants  opened 
warerooms  in  Paris. 

800  A.D.  Daughters  of  Charlemagne,  France,  taught 
to  weave  silk. 

800  A.D.  Abdul-Raman  II  introduced  the  use  of 
“tiraz”  (silk  stuff  embroidered). 

900  A.D.  Sicily  and  Spain  alike  showed  Saracenic 
design  treatments  in  fine  silks. 

1000  A.D.  Constantinople,  Corinth,  Thebes  and 
Athens  practically  monopolized  the  making  of  fine 
fabrics. 

1000  A.D.  Roger  Guiscard  organized  a silk  factory 
at  Palermo,  Sicily,  Hotel  des  Tiraz,  with  Thebian 
and  Corinthian  weavers,  and  according  to  some 
historians  it  became  the  greatest  silk  manufactur- 
ing city  in  the  world.  Scarcely  less  renowned 
were  Malaga,  Murcia,  Granada  and  Seville.  Many 
Italian  towns  also  took  up  silk  manufacturing, 


35 


Showing  Saracenic  Influence. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN.  330-600. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN— ROMANESQUE. 


Florence,  Genoa,  Venice,  Bologna  and  Milan. 
Saracenic  and  Greek  silk  weavers  located  in  Ger- 
many, the  Netherlands,  France  and  Great  Britain. 

1100  A.D.  Towards  the  end  of  the  Twelfth  Century 
Flemish  weavers  began  the  manufacture  of  wool 
tapestries.  Art  developed  to  Arras,  Valenciennes, 
Tourney,  Audenarde,  Lille  and  Brussels.  The 
oldest  tapestries  in  existence  are  of  this  era.  Two 
are  in  the  Cathedral,  Halberstadt,  Germany. 

1200  A.D.  Persian  silks  famous  throughout  Europe 
and  copied  generally. 

1200  A.D.  France  began  manufacture  of  tapestries. 

1268  A.D.  Madrid,  Spain,  organized  tapestry  factory. 

1300  A.D.  Spain  began  to  degenerate  as  a producing 
country. 

1300  A.D.  Arras,  city  south  of  France,  made  valu- 
able wool  tapestries  up  to  1477. 

1300  A.D.  Lucca,  famous  for  silk  weaving,  Lucchese 
weavers  emigrated  to  Germany,  the  Netherlands, 
France  and  Great  Britain,  in  which  countries  silk 
manufacture  flourished  up  to  1500. 

1300  A.D.  Velvet  is  mentioned  in  the  English  inven- 
tories and  French  documents. 

1300  A.D.  Genoa,  the  center  for  Italian  trade  in  the 
East,  introduces  Eastern  design. 

1400  A.D.  Spanish  and  Italian  writers  referred  to 
“velvets”  or  velvet  stuffs.  (See  1500.) 

1400  A.D.  Asiatic  fabrics  were  taken  in  great  quan- 
tities by  Europe.  During  Fifteenth  Century  Con- 
stantinople and  Byzantium  were  the  chief  markets 
for  supplying  Oriental  stuffs  to  Europe. 

1400  A.D.  While  Italian  wool  tapestries  were  de- 
signed by  native  artists,  the  workmen  came  from 
Flanders.  During  1400,  when  the  Ottomans  con- 
quered Constantinople,  they  infused  Orientalism 
into  Southeastern  Europe,  and  the  manufacturers 
in  the  Ottoman  towns — Anatolia — went  into  the 
markets  of  Italy  and  France,  Spain  and  Flanders. 
This  spirit  brought  political  changes,  new  com- 
mercial relations  and  the  influence  over  the  deco- 
rative designs  and  decorative  fabrics  of  all  Eu- 
rope. This  Ottoman  type  was  more  Persian  than 
Saracenic.  It  was  strongly  floriated. 

1432  A.D.  Silks  of  Damascus  were  famous. 

1466  A.D.  Lyons,  France,  established  silk  looms. 
Under  Francis  I silk  weaving  was  encouraged  and 
many  Italians  employed.  Turkey  pre-eminent  for 
silks  of  Broussa,  Diarbekir,  Beyrout,  Aleppo  and 
Damascus,  Assyria. 

1480  A.D.  Beginning  of  needle-point  lace  work  in 
Italy. 

1500  A.D.  Spain  weakly  reflecting  the  character  of 
French  and  Italian  styles. 

1500  A.D.  France,  Germany,  Holland  and  England 
weaving  fine  silks. 

1500  A.D.  A continuance  of  inscriptional  styles  in 
gold,  “velvet,”  and  satin,  superseding  brocaded 
silks  of  early  date.  Materials  heavier. 


1500  A.D.  According  to  the  revenue  records  of  Italy, 
cloths  of  silk,  satin  damasks  and  velvets  plain  and 
cut,  were  made  “in  a way  unknown  to  the  an- 
cients.” Prior  to  this  date  velvet  was  a material 
that  had  been  simply  roughed  up  so  as  to  appear 
fluffy.  England  attempted  during  1500  to  make 
satin  damasks,  velvets  and  cloths  of  gold,  but  soon 
abandoned  the  enterprise. 

1515  A.D.  Pope  Leo  X had  tapestries  made  in  Brus- 
sels after  cartoons  by  Raphael. 

1539  A.D.  Francis  I established  tapestry  factory. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  Gobelin  manufacture. 

1600  A.D.  Beginning  of  point  Venise  laces  in  Italy. 
At  this  time  similar  laces  were  made  in  France  and 
in  Flanders  and  Russia  also. 

1600  A.D.  Showing  Italian  character  of  design, 
strongly  influenced  by  Oriental. 

Italian  and  Sicilian  towns  famous  in  silk  manu- 
facture. Also  Tours,  Nimes,  Lyons,  Avignon, 
Paris,  France.  Flemish  and  Dutch  were  more 
traders  than  producers. 

1619  A.D.  Mortlake  Tapestry  Works  were  estab- 
lished near  London  by  James  I.  Existed  up  to 
Charles  I. 

1619  A.D.  Gobelin  Tapestry  Works  became  royal 
property  of  France. 

1650  A.D.  Under  Colbert  many  lace  factories  estab- 
lished in  France  for  the  making  of  net  laces. 

1690  A.D.  or  thereabout,  Beauvais  Tapestry  Works 
established. 

1700  A.D.  French  characteristics  prevailed  in  French 
manufactures.  Many  towns  in  France  undertook 
manufacturing.  The  French  influence  in  designs 
spread  to  Spain,  England,  Holland,  Germany  and 
Switzerland  during  the  flight  of  the  weavers  from 
France  at  the  time  the  Edict  of  Nantes  in  France 
was  revoked. 

1700  A.D.  Netherlands,  Bruges  satins  famous. 

1700  A.D.  Flanders  famed  for  its  tapestries. 

1750  A.D.  Thousands  of  silk-weaving  looms  estab- 
lished in  England — in  Spitalfields,  Cheshire,  York- 
shire, Essex,  Derbyshire,  Lancashire  and  Nor- 
folk. Large  quantities  of  Chinese  and  Indian 
silks  used  in  England. 

1759  A.D.  Manufacture  of  printed  linen  authorized 
and  encouraged  by  French  Government.  The 
most  famous  became  known  as  Toile  de  Jouy. 

1800  A.D.  The  Germans  were  great  producers  at 
Crefeld,  Elberfeld,  and  Barmen. 

1800  A.D.  Austria  began  the  manufacture  of  silk  and 
1500  looms  were  soon  in  operation  by  imported 
labor  from  Genoa  and  Lyons. 

1800  A.D.  Some  silk  was  made  at  Stockholm,  but 
neither  Norway  nor  Sweden  had  made  history  in 
this  business. 

1800  A.D.  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg  established 
silk  looms  in  Russia. 

1818  A.D.  Bobbinet  first  made  by  machinery. 


38 


ASIATIC 


ORIENTAL — ISLAM — MOHAMMEDAN. — Arabian  571  A.D.  Saracenic  571.  Moorish  711.  Alhambraic  1250. 

Turkish  1096.  Ottoman  1360.  Persian  641. 


ORIENTAL -ISLAM  ORNAMENT. 

The  term  Oriental  relates  to  the  Far  East  or 
Asia. 

The  term  Islam  relates  to  the  religion  which  be- 
gan with  the  birth  of  Mohammed,  571  A.D. 

ARABIAN SARACENIC. 

Native  of  Arabia.  Arabian  followers  of 
Mohammed,  born  571,  were  called  Saracens  and 
located  at  Medina ; established  Mohammedan  re- 
ligion 622. 

634.  Saracens  conquered  Syria,  Palestine, 
Phoenicia  and  Egypt. 

641.  Persia  overthrown  by  Arabians,  who 
also  conquered  Northern  Africa  and  captured 
Rhodes. 

700.  Saracens  conquered  Byzantium  and 
Northern  Africa;  the  Berbers  accepted  Moham- 
medan religion,  and  with  inhabitants  of  Greek  and 
Roman  descent,  became  amalgamated  with  the 
Arabians  under  the  name  of  Moors;  711,  crossed 
to  Spain,  establishing  the  Caliphate  of  Cordova. 
Saracenic  conquests  for  many  years  extended  over 
Southwestern  Asia  up  to  the  Mediterranean,  in- 
fluencing the  arts  of  Spain,  Southern  France  and 
Southern  Italy.  Followed  the  use  of  flat  con- 
ventionalized interlacement  of  geometric  accuracy, 
thus  unlike  Celtic  or  Scandinavian,  and  unlike  the 
Ottoman  form  or  later  Turkish  type.  The  Mo- 
hammedan religion  interdicted  the  use  of  animal 
forms,  and  the  law  of  the  Koran  was  strictly 
followed  by  the  strict  Mohammedans,  hence 
' Arabian  art  was  confined  to  conventionalized 
forms,  with  occasionally  Arabic  inscriptions. 

MOORISH. 

The  Moors  were  the  Saracen  converts  from 
Northern  Africa  who  in  711  crossed  to  Spain. 
The  arts  are  sometimes  called  early  Spanish. 

1250.  The  Alhambraic  period.  By  1200  the 
Moorish  form  of  ornament  embodied  Arabian 
ornament  superimposed  upon  geometrical  back- 
ground framework. 

1610.  Moors  expelled  from  Spain. 

TURKISH. 

Turks  originally  Tartan  tribe,  226  B.C.  Sel- 
juk  Turks,  a term  applied  to  Western  Turks  who 
in  1096  held  empire  by  conquest  over  many  parts 
of  Persia  and  the  West  Coast  of  Arabia. 

The  Turks  had  no  art  excepting  the  art  bor- 
rowed from  Persia  and  Arabia.  (See  Ottoman.) 


OTTOMAN. 

A band  of  wandering  Turks  aided  the  Seljuk 
Turks,  or  Western  Turks,  in  battle  and  conquered 
the  Arabians  1250.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire  and  the  arrest  of  the  Arabian 
conquests  in  Asia. 

1360.  Ottomans  conquered  Asiatic  posses- 
sions of  the  Byzantine  Empire  and  Turkey  in 
Europe. 

1453.  Surrender  of  Constantinople  to  the 
Ottoman  Turks. 

1480.  Ottoman  supremacy  on  the  wane. 

The  Ottoman  arts  were  the  arts  of  the  Otto- 
man Turks  or  the  Turks  of  the  Ottoman  Empire, 
established  1259.  Ottoman  art  was  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Arabian  with  strong  Byzantine  influ- 
ence even  to  the  interdiction  of  animal  life.  A 
characteristic  was  the  use  of  conventionalized  pea 
forms  and  leaf  and  pod. 

i 

PERSIAN. 

Islam  effect  upon  Persia  began  641,  wheii 
Persia  was  overthrown  by  Arabians. 

750.  Independent  principalities  sprang  u|) 
in  Persia. 

1605.  Shah  Abbas,  ascending  throne  of  Per- 
sia, drove  out  the  Ottoman  Turks  and  Mongols 
and  recovered  the  country. 

Islam  effect  upon  Persia  641,  when  Persia 
was  overthrown  by  the  Arabians.  As  long  as 
Persia  was  dominated  by  the  Arabians  Persian 
art  was  largely  Arabian;  but  in  1605,  with  the 
downfall  of  the  Ottomans,  Persia,  through  Shah 
Abbas,  developed  to  its  fullest  the  native  tenden- 
cies, even  to  the  adoption  of  European  Renais- 
sance forms  and  human,  animal  and  bird  forms. 
Persian  art  had  been  always  liberal,  and  even 
when  under  Arabian  control  was  never  flat  and 
conventional,  but  realistic  with  florals,  notably 
pinks,  hyacinths,  tulips,  roses,  palms,  pines,  pome- 
granates, pineapples  and  dates. 

INDIAN. 

1400  B.C.  Brahma. 

500  B.C.  Buddha. 

711  A.D.  Arabian  Invasion. 

1525  A.D.  Mogul  Empire. 

748  A.D.  English  Control. 

Indian  art  was  influenced  by  Mohammedan 
up  to  the  Sixteenth  Century,  and  it  broke  away 
from  the  restrictions  of  the  Koran. 


39 


ARABIAN  ORNAMENT. 

Arabian— -An  interlacement  of  flat  and  geometric  or  vegetation  forms,  distinguished  from  Ottoman  or  the  late  Turk- 
ish by  being  less  realistic.  Inscriptional  work  often  introduced.  Human  or  animal  figures  are  expressions  of  out- 
side influence,  usually  Persian.  It  is  impossible  to  distinguish  between  Arabian  and  early  types  of  Moorish. 


MOORISH  ORNAMENT. 

Moorish  (Arabian  origin)  developed  finally  the  Alhambraic,  an  elaborate  form. 


OTTOMAN  ORNAMENT. 

Ottoman  Turkish  developed  a floriated  Arabian  form,  with  the  pea  vine  and  leaf  as  motifs. 


PERSIAN  ORNAMENT. 

Persian — Where  Arabian  characteristics  appear  in  Persian  design  they  point  to  the  period  of  Arabian  domination 
The  floriated  form  expressed  a later  feeling,  when  Persia  recovered  control  of  much  of  her  territory.  Persian  art 

reached  its  highest  type  of  floriated  form  in  1500. 


CHINESE  — INDIAN  - JAPANESE  - SARACENIC 


CHINESE— Mythic  Period  3500  B.C.  First  Emperor 
2200  B.C.  Confucius  500  B.C. 

Sung  Dynasty,  960-1127;  Han  Dynasty,  1127-1279; 
Yuan  Dynasty,  1279-1368;  Ming  or  “Bright”  Dynasty, 
1368-1628;  Wan  Lih  Period,  1573-1620;  Shun  Chih 
Period,  1644-1661;  Kang  Hsi  Period,  1661-1722;  Yung 
Ching  Period.  1723-1736;  Kien  Lung  Period,  1736-1796; 
Chia  Ching  Period,  1796-1821;  Tau  Kwang  Period, 
1821-1851. 

Chinese  and  Indian  art  are  frequently  confused 
because  they  have  much  in  common.  Possibly 
this  condition  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  influences 
of  Buddha.  The  Chinese  employ  an  endless  list  of 
deities,  demons,  monsters.  They  have  eight  immor- 
tals and  the  figure  eight  is  a favorite.  They  have 
eight  lucky  emblems,  eight  Buddhist  symbols,  eight 
ordinary  symbols.  We  note  also  in  Chinese  frets  and 
geometrical  details,  forms  identical  with  Greek. 

Mythological  art  is  an  art  of  great  study.  To 
comprehend  its  meaning  one  would  have  to  be  a Con- 
fucionist,  a Taoist  and  a Buddhist.  Stripped  of  its 


symbolism,  Chinese  art  is  an  art  of  extravagant  nature 
forms,  and  in  the  past  four  centuries  these  forms  were 
undoubtedly  influenced  by  Persian  nicety  and  decora- 
tive consistency. 

INDIAN — Brahma  1400  B.C.  Buddha  500  B.C.  Arabian 
Invasion  711  A.D.  Mogul  Empire  1525  A.D.  English 
Control  1748  A.D. 

Woven  brocades  and  silks  of  India  were  not  de- 
veloped as  decorative  arts  until  the  Sixteenth 
Century.  While  Indian  art  goes  back  to  the  remote 
past,  the  art  as  we  understand  it  is  Islam.  Having  the 
typical  Mohammedan  divisions  of  space,  but  more 
flowing,  having  more  freedom  and  grace,  it  is  less 
confined  than  the  Arabian  style.  The  Arabian  inva- 
sion of  India  began  711  A.D.,  and  from  that  date 
Mohammedan  domination  prevailed ; but  beginning 
with  1500  Indian  art  broke  away  from  the  Koran  re- 
strictions and  we  have  the  elephant,  lion,  tiger,  the 
peacock  and  the  human  figure  common  accessories  in 


45 


1 


INDIAN  ORNAMENT. 


CHINESE  ORNAMENT. 


JAPANESE  ORNAMENT. 


SARACENIC 


decoration.  Indian  ornament  followed  a profuse 
floral  system,  and  block  prints  in  silk  and  cotton 
reached  a high  degree  of  perfection  during  the  Seven- 
teenth and  Eighteenth  Centuries.  The  details  are-  al- 
ways worked  out  finely. 

SARACENIC  — 641  A.  D. 

Persia  was  conquered  by 
the  Saracens  or  Arabians, 
who  by  711  had  invaded 
India,  Spain,  Turkestan 
and  Northern  Africa. 

827  A.D.  Saracens  set- 
tled in  Sicily.  Early  in 
Tenth  Century  extended 
their  incursions  into  Italy. 

1r  is  impossible  to  clas- 
sify Saracenic  designs 
under  one  grouping,  for 
the  reason  that  the  term 
applies  to  the  Arabian  in- 
fluences covering  many 
years  and  many  countries. 

(See  Romanesque,  Gothic, 
and  Italian.)  To  com- 
prehend the  term  Sara- 
cenic one  must  study  the 
chronological  history  of 
the  Orient.  Wherever  the 
Arabian  or  the  Saracen 
conquered  there  he  left 
his  influence.  The  term  is 
adjective.  It  may  apply 
to  much  that  would  be 
otherwise  classified  as 
Romanesque,  Norma  n, 

Gothic,  or  Sicilian  if  the 
Arabian  characteristics 
permeate  the  composition. 

In  Southern  Italy  and  in 

Sicily  the  style  which  developed  in  the  Ninth  Century 

was  distinctly  Saracenic. 
If  we  study  the  Roman- 
esque and  the  Norman 
we  find  in  the  origin  of 
each  the  Saracenic  su- 
perimposed upon  Roman 
or  Byzantine  and  we 
have  as  a result  a con- 
fusion that  is  often 
hard  to  analyze. 

A design,  there- 
fore, Norman,  Rom- 
anesque or  Byzantine 
that  is  conspicuous  by 
its  Arabian  influence  is 
called  Saracenic. 

Under  the  Sara- 
cens, textile  fabrics 
reached  a high  develop- 
ment in  color  and  ma- 


terial. The  arts  culminated  in  the  period  900-1200. 
Though  Mohammed  forbade  the  wearing  of  silk,  it 
was  largely  used,  and  to  evade  the  injunction  cotton 
was  interwoven  with  it.  Sicilian  or  Siculo-Saracenic 

fabrics  showed  bands  of 
birds  and  animals,  foliage, 
inscriptions,  in  blue,  green 
and  gold  on  red  ground. 

Drawn  gold  thread 
was  not  used  in  early  fab- 
rics, but  gold  leaf  on  pa- 
per and  then  rolled  around 
a fine  thread  of  silk  was 
manipulated.  Sicilian  fab- 
rics of  the  Thirteenth  and 
Fourteenth  Centuries  are 
frequently  in  purple 
ground  of  twilled  silk  with 
birds  and  foliage  formed 
by  gold  thread  weft. 
Saracenic  or  Hispano- 
Moresque  fabrics  of  Spain 
are  distinguished  by  the 
splendid  crimson  or  dark 
blue  conventional  patterns 
of  silk  upon  yellow 
ground,  and  by  the  fre- 
quent use  of  strips  of 
gilded  parchment  in  place 
of  the  rolled  gilt  thread. 
Undoubtedly  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  crusades  the 
Sicilian  weavers  of  the 
Thirteenth  and  Fourteenth 
Centuries  produced  many 
fabrics  enriched  with 
winged  lions,  crosses,  crowns,  rayed  stars,  harts, 

birds,  linked  together  with  donations  or  armorial 

bearings.  Late  in  1200  this  character  of  design  was 
introduced  into  Northern  Italy.  Genoa  adopted  much 
that  was  Persian  from  the  Twelfth  to  the  Seven- 
teenth Century,  and  in  the  Fifteenth  Century,  when 
Fouis  XI  encouraged  the  art  of  weaving  in  France 
at  Tours  and  later  at  Lyons  under  Francis  I,  the 
Persian  and  Italian  fabrics  were  closely  followed,  and 

the  vase  pattern  was 
adopted. 

The  Oriental 
character  of  design  in 
textiles  did  not  en- 
tirely disappear  until 
the  gardens  of  Ver- 
sailles and  the  Tri- 
anons  under  Louis 
XIV  gave  inspiration 
to  the  use  of  Euro- 
pean flora. 


Saracenic. 


49 


Japanese  Ornament. 


B.C.  Empire  established  660  B.C. 

THERE  is  a close  affinity 
between  the  Indian  and 
Japanese  arts,  for  Budd- 
hism, introduced  from  India,  exer- 
cised pronounced  influence  upon 
the  people  of  Japan.  We  are  in- 
clined also  to  broadly  associate 
the  Chinese  and  Japanese  arts; 
indeed  the  differences  are  not 
easy  to  determine. 

In  1200  B.C.  the  Ainos, 
people  occupying  islands  east  of 
Asia,  were  conquered  by  bands 
from  the  mainland.  The  con- 
querors became  known  as  Jap- 
anese, but  for  centuries  their 
early  arts  were  stimulated  by 
their  Chinese  progenitors.  Little  by  little,  however, 


they  developed  a great  love  of  detail,  a nice  accuracy 
of  expression  foreign  to  the  Chinese  spirit.  They 
employed  less  conventionality  and  more  nature.  We 
nevertheless  find  in  both  Chinese  and  Japanese  art 
forms  that  are  almost  identical,  and  where  that  is  the 
case  we  can  trace  it  to  the  influences  of  India. 

We  find  in  indigenous  work  of  the  Japanese  a 
great  deal  of  nature  study — butterflies,  cranes,  dragons, 
peacock-feather  patterns,  flowers,  tortoises,  waves — 
in  fact,  almost  everything  in  nature,  and  the  methods 
are  in  most  cases  picturesque  rather  than  fixed  and 
formal. 

During  the  last  fifty  years  Japan  has  studied  and 
complied  with  the  demands  of  European  taste,  and 
native  art  has  consequently  weakened. 

At  its  best,  it  followed  the  methods  of  China  and 
India  and  in  most  cases  was  content  with  reproduc- 
tion. 


JAPANESE — 12* 


Indian. 


50 


From  an  old  painting  in  Stuttgart,  Germany 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  GERMAN  GOTHIC  FURNITURE. 


[classic, 


[romani 


[SICILIAI 


[gothic. 


[gothic. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  FLORAL  GOTHIC  MOTIFS 


FRENCH  : 


ENGLISH  : 


GERMAN  : ITALIAN  : 


Gothic  style  originated  in  France: 
1108  Abbey  Church  of  St.  Denis, 
notable  example.  Cathedral  of 
Notre  Dame,  Paris,  1163-1182,  is 
a fine  example. 

Early  Period,  1150. 

Secondary,  1200-1300. 

Flamboyant,  1307-1399. 

Influence  lingered  till  1515. 


Early  Gothic  or  Crude  Gothic, 
1189-1307. 

Decorated  or  Ornamental,  1300- 
1400. 

Perpendicular,  1399-1500. 

Tudor  Gothic,  1485-1509. 

DUTCH,  BELGIAN  AND  TYROL 
GOTHIC  : 


Began,  1250. 

SPANISH  AND 
PORTUGUESE  : 
Began,  1250. 

Dominated  by  Moorish 
Character. 


Began,  1250. 

But  never  freed  itself 
from  Classic  and  By- 
zantine influences. 
Gothic  style  had  little 
development  in  Italy. 


Developments  of  French  and 
German. 


GOTHIC 


H E Gothic  style  was  the 
art  expression  having  root  in 
the  spread  of  the  Christian 
religion,  and  is  full  of  Christian 
symbolism.  At  first  crude  and 

Romanesque  or  heavy>  * yielded  later  to  a hi§hly 
round-head  Gothic  ornate  form  of  treatment. 

Regarding  the  Gothic  develop- 
ment there  is  much  confusion.  It  developed  directly 
from  the.  Romanesque,  a style  which  grew  up  in 
Northern  Italy;  natu- 
rally the  Romanesque 
characteristics  lin- 
gered in  its  construc- 
tion. Indeed,  the  late 
Romanesque  is  called 
the  Round  - Head 
Gothic,  its  arches  in 
architecture  being  semi-circular,  as  distinguished  from 
the  later  Gothic  development  of  pointed  arches. 

The  Gothic  period,  extending  as  it  did  from  1100 
to  1550  and  influenced  as  it  was  by  the  Byzantine, 


Gothic  Fleurs-de-lis. 


Saracenic,  and  finally  Romanesque,  naturally  absorbed 
many  architectural  characteristics  as  the  style  traversed 
France,  Germany  Spain,  Italy  and  England.  And  yet 
all  phases  possessed  a common  floriation  and  universal 
religious  symbolism — the  trefoil,  the  quatrefoil,  curves 
and  arches,  circles,  triangles,  religious  figures — are  con- 
spicuous whether  of  the  Gothic  of  Spain  with  Moorish 
arch,  or  the  Gothic  of  France  with  pointed  spires,  or  of 
England  with  its  lancet  as  well  as  squat  Tudor  vaults. 

One  cannot  too  strongly  emphasize  the  fact  that 

Gothic  art  was  an 
architectural  art.  It 
was  the  art  of  the 
builder,  the  sculptor, 
the  wood-carver,  as 
distinguished  from 
the  art  of  the  weaver, 
who  up  to  this  period 
took  inspiration  mainly  from  Asia.  Thus  we  find  fre- 
quently in  the  furnishings  of  a church,  palace  or  cot- 
tage, Gothic  characteristics  in  all  that  was  of  the  house 
or  building  proper  or  of  the  cabinetmaker,  and  com- 


Quarry. 


Gothic  Characteristics  of  Design. 


53 


A Fifteenth  Century  room  in  the  Volpi  Museum,  Florence,  the  first  illustration  showing  round  arch  Gothic,  the 
second  illustration  Transition  Gothic.  Walls  of  cosmatic  mosaic  introduced  in  the  Thirteenth  Century  by  Giovanni 

Cosmato.  Floor,  tiles.  Furniture,  Sixteenth  Century. 


GOTHIC 


bined  therewith  textiles  and 
art  treasures  brought  in  by 
the  Flemish  and  Italian 
traders  from  far  Asia. 

It  is  somewhat  difficult 
to  understand  the  terms  used 
descriptive  of  the 
Gothic  epochs.  In 
order  to  assist  in  a 
comprehension  o f 
these  terms  we  repro- 
duce the  classifica- 
tions of  Sharpe,  Rick- 
man and  De  Cau- 
mont.  We  prefer, 
however,  that  the 
student  shall  follow 
our  own  classification.  The  term  “Transitional 
Gothic”  as  shown  by  Sharpe  is  the  same  as  “Norman,” 
applied  by  Rickman.  The  classifications  are  as  fol- 
lows : 


ith  the  beginning  of 
Gothic  we  note  the 
simple  crochet  form,  as  it  is 
called,  a terminal  floriation. 
At  first  crude,  it  soon  de- 
veloped into  the 
Decorative  type, 
characterized  by  nat- 
ural foliage  of  many 
kinds,  with  flowing, 
undulating  lines, 
truer  to  nature  than 
Early  Gothic  and 
treated  in  richness 
and  profusion.  Then 
came  the  Perpendicu- 
lar Gothic,  arranged  with  more  fixed  geometrical  rules 
of  construction,  and  introduced  as  motifs  we  find  her- 
aldic forms  shields,  badges  and  crests.  The  space  to 
be  carved  was  divided  into  rectangular  or  lozenge 
shapes  and  filled  with  ornament  systematically. 


w 


*+YYYf4 

Gothic  forms  from  which  the  trefoil  and  quatrefoil  details 
were  taken,  obtained  by  the  use  of  circles. 


1145  A.D. 

Gothic : 

T ransitional, 

1145-  1190  A. 

D. ; Lancet, 

1190-  1245  A. 

D. ; Curvi- 
linear, 1245- 
1 3 60  A.D. ; 

Rectiline  a r , 

1360-1550  A.D. 

RICKMAN. 

Roman- 
esque : Nor- 
man, 10  6 6- 
1189  A.D. ; 

Early  English, 

1189-1307  A.D. 

Gothic  : 

Decorated,  1307-1379  A.D. ; Perpendicular,  1379-1483 
A.D. ; Tudor,  1483-1546  A.D. 

DE  CAUMONT  (FRENCH). 

Romanesque  : Primordiale,  400-900  A.D. ; Sec- 
ondaire,  900-1100  A.D. ; Tertiaire,  1100  A.D. 

Pointed:  Primitive,  1200;  Secondaire  or  Rayon- 
nant,  1300;  Tertiaire  or  Flamboyant,  1400  A.D. 


At  the  time  of  the  Norman  conquest  English 
houses  were  usually  one  room.  A hole  in  the  roof 

served  to  carry 
out  the  smoke 
from  the  fire, 
and  indeed 
m any  houses 
lacked  c h i m - 
neys  in  Eng- 
land as  late  as 
1500. 

The  tables 
used  were 
mere  planks  on 
trestles. 

Chestswere 
common  arti- 
cles of  furni- 
ture, and  may 
be  divided  into 
three  classes,  which  are  defined  as  follows : 

First,  the  chest  of  the  Early  Gothic  following  the 
Romanesque  style  banded  in  iron  more  for  strength 
than  ornament. 

Second,  the  chest  heavily  banded  in  iron  and 
painted.  These  were  common  during  the  Thirteenth 
and  Fourteenth  Centuries. 

The  third  type  began  with  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 


//^-SHARPE- 

Romanesque  : Saxon,  1066  A.D. ; Norman,  1066- 


Group  IV  (G).  Group  IV  (G).  Group  V. 

See  table  of  group  classifications,  for  dates. 


round-head  Gothic. 


55 


i 


1200.  Groi^p  IV  (I).  1200.  Italian  Group  IV  (I).  1200.  Group  IV  (I).  1200.  Group  IV  (I). 


GOTHIC 


tury  and  was  carved,  following  the  architectural 
forms. 

Beginning  with  1200  the  walls  of  the  houses  were 
wainscoted  and  painted,  often  decorated  with  subjects 
romantic,  biblical  and  traditional. 

The  very  rich  used  colored  glass  windows ; the 
wainscotings  of  the  rooms  being  primitive  were  fre- 
quently hung 
with  tapestries 
to  check  drafts.. 

Domestic 
furniture  was 
often  painted  in 
bright  colors  or 
rendered  in  tem- 
pera o r wax. 

Cupboards 
showed  Gothic 
details  of  simple 
character  with 
perforated  doors 
for  ventilation, 
as  food  was 
often  kept 
therein. 

In  1400  the 
lower-floor  room 
of  a house  was 
a combination 
dining-room  and 
bedroom.  The 
furniture  con- 
sisted of  a table, 
a long  bench 
(with  canopy 
called  a dossier) 
seating  four 
persons,  a stand- 
ing cupboard,  a 
bed  with  heavy 
curtains  at  the 
foot,  two  buf- 
fets, a table  for 
holding  toilet 
articles,  a few 
stools  and  a 
prie-dieu.  The 
floor  was  strewn 
with  rushes,  or 
in  the  halls  of  the  wealthy  it  was  laid  with  Eastern 
carpets. 

Clothing  was  kept  in  an  adjoining  room,  while 
the  bath  was  taken  in  a wooden  tub  drawn  up  to  the 
open  fireplace. 

About  1500  the  large  hall  of  the  house  was 
the  general  sitting-room,  recejition-room  and  dining- 


room combined,  furnished  with  a long  table,  and 
dossier. 

Chests,  benches  and  settles  with  occasionally  an  in- 
dividual chair,  a buffet,  a side  table,  screen  and  one  or 
more  cupboards,  completed  the  furnishings. 

This  furniture  was  primitive,  drawers  in  tables 
not  being  introduced  until  late  in  1400,  nor  was  an 

extension  table 
or  a table  witli 
added  leaves  in 
use  prior  to 
1500.  The  chest 
was  a favorite 
piece  of  furni- 
ture. In  the 
Royal  presence 
it  would  have 
been  a breach  of 
etiquette  to  sit 
on  a chair,  but 
proper  to  sit  on 
chest  or  coffer. 
Towards  the 
middle  of  1400 
these  chests  be- 
came decorated 
with  linenfold 
panels  in  the 
form  of  carving 
that  looked  like 
folds  of  linen. 
The  linenfold 
pattern  was  first 
used  in  screens 
in  the  churches. 
Though  Flem- 
ish in  origin,  it 
quickly  became 
identified  with 
English.  It  was 
carried  well  into 
the  Renaissance 
and  lasted  from 
about  1450  to 
1550.  Towards 
the  close, 
bunches  of 
grapes  and  pro- 
fuse floriation 
were  introduced. 

TEXTILE  DESIGNS. 

The  terms  Gothic,  Saracenic  and  Renaissance  are 
laxly  applied. 

In  architecture  and  woodcarving,  Gothic,  for  ex- 
ample, defines  an  accurate  development,  but  the  fabrics 
used  in  Gothic  environment,  even  fabrics  woven  in 
Italy,  Germany  and  France,  have  little  Gothic  signifi- 


German,  Fifteenth  Century. 


57 


EARLY  ENGLISH  GOTHIC  1189-1307. 


To  this  floral  form  is  added,  in  ecclesiastical  work,  religious  symbols,  the  circle,  the  trefoil,  quatrefoil,  triangle, 

crucifix,  crown,  chalice  and  cross. 


ENGLISH  GOTHIC  1189-1509. 


cance.  Throughout  the  Euro- 
pean countries  dominated  by 
Gothic  feeling,  weaving  was 
strongly  influenced  by  the  Sara- 
cens. In  lower  Italy,  Sicily 
and  Spain  this  fact  is  obvious ; 
the  weavers  perpetuated  in 
their  arts  the  Saracenic  style 
long  after  all  traces  of  the 
Orient  had  been  obliterated  by 
architect  and  sculptor.  The 
traders  of  Flanders  and  Italy, 
up  to  the  fall  of  Constantinople 
were  active  in  the  importation 
of  Oriental  stuffs,  which  served 
as  a stimulus  for  European 
workmen. 

It  was  not  until  the  Italians 


and  French  had  practically  lost 
their  Oriental  commerce 
that  they  turned  their  attention 
to  home  manufactures;  and  not 
until  this  condition  arose,  were 
designs  produced,  consistent 
with  the  character  of  the  pre- 
vailing arts. 

The  acanthus  forms  were 
taken  as  motifs. 

The  Anthemion  was  gen- 
erously utilized,  as  well  as 
fleur-de-lis.  Laurel  leaves  and 
wreath  shapes  were  adopted, 
and  toward  the  end  of  the  Six- 
teenth Century  European  flora, 
crowns  and  urns  were  a com- 
mon source  of  inspiration.  (See 


Saracenic,  Twelfth  Century. 


page  52.) 


1300. 


North  Italian,  1200. 


1400. 


V 


Late  English  Gothic  developed  finally  the 
style  known  as  Tudor  (Tudor  Gothic),  the  arches 
of  which  were  low  and  squat  instead  of  angu- 
lar. The  panelings  showed  linenfold  effects  and  the 
tops  of  the  folds  were  often 
elaborated  by  floral  details. 
Outside  the  eccelsiastical 
forms,  leaf  motifs  were  the 
predominating  Gothic  charac- 
teristic. Where  the  work 
had  religious  significance  the 
design  harked  back  to  the 
Byzantine,  Romanesque  and 
Celtic.  Thus  in  manuscript 
decoration  of  even  a later 
date  we  frequently  note  the 
pea  and  pea-tendril  types,  the 
penman  finding  special  oppor- 
tunities in  the  elongated 
sweeps  of  the  vine. 


French  — French  archi- 
tecture was  bold  and  elabor- 
ate, showing  doorways  en- 
riched with  statues.  As  a 
rule  the  floral  leaves  were 
rounded  and  more  full  than 
the  English  leaves.  Clus- 
tered pillars  were  almost  un- 
known in  France;  observable 
in  Germany  and  England. 


Late  Italian  Gothic. 


Netherlands — Tyrol — The  arts  of  the  Nether- 
lands were  influenced  by  France  and  Germany. 
Wrought  iron  decoration  in  leaf  and  plant  form  was 
popular.  Tyrol  Gothic,  a type  simple  and  effective, 
generously  utilizing  the  work  of 
the  wood  carver. 

Germany — Although  Ger- 
many followed  Late-Gothic  ten- 
dencies, it  was  not  until  1350 
in  possession  of  an  established 
style.  It  followed  the  vertical 
more  than  any  other  and  at  an 
early  stage  developed  a fine  sys- 
tem of  strap  work  in  metal,  in 
which  Gothic  lines  were  closely 
followed.  The  use  of  birds  in 
conjunction  with  leaf  forms 
was  common  and  twisted  spirals 
and  faces  and  armorial  details 
were  often  used. 


gothic  fabrics. 

We  have  grouped  as  IV 
and  V,  under  the  heading, 
“Development  of  Mechanical 
Textile  Design,”  page  64,  all 
that  may  be  regarded  as  con- 
temporaneous with  Gothic. 
Group  IV  representing  fabrics 
between  1000  and  1350,  Group 
V between  1350  and  1500. 


Late  Italian  Gothic. 


6i 


FRENCH  GOTHIC. 


GERMAN 


GOTHIC. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT 
T E XT  I L E DESIGN  - 


Constantinople,  Corinth,  Thebes  and  Athens  prac- 
tically monopolized  the  making  of  fine  fabrics 
1000  A.D.  Towards  the  end  of  the  Twelfth  Century 
Flemish  weavers  began  the  manufacture  of  wool  tap- 
estries. France  and  Spain  also  undertook  the  manu- 
facture during  the  Thirteenth  Century.  The  Orient 
up  to  1400  was  famous  throughout  Europe  for  its  fab- 
ric creations,  the  Crusades  being  largely  responsible 
for  the  distribution  of  fine  examples.  European 
weavers  copied  liberally  the  Asiatic  styles,  and  when 
in  the  Fifteenth  Century  the  Ottomans  conquered 
Constantinople,  Orientalism  was  still  further  infused 
throughout  Southeastern  Europe. 


OF  MECHANICAL 
-GOTHIC  PERIOD 

200-400.  Group  I (A)  The  development  of  circle 
and  geometric  frames,  sometimes  filled  with  sim- 
ple floral,  bird  or  animal  forms. 

400-600.  Group  II  (B)  The  utilization  of  broken 
circles  spread  out  to  form  bands. 

600-1000.  Group  III  (C)  The  use  of  circles  linked 
by  smaller  circles,  with  ornaments  inside  and  out, 
developing  at  length  (D)  the  ogival  form;  often 
(E)  hexagon  frame  work. 

1000-1350.  Group  IV  (F)  Repeated  parallel  bands 
of  ornamentation — detached  details. 

(G)  Patterns  animate  and  inanimate,  enclosed 


E3E 

I f i I iR  * 

^ * iF®5|9p®^  fp  V S.%  Me  ■::■  v-i 

1 L ) ApK  iMj  fvJHL 

WWr 

i^V\  )k- 

1500.  Group  VI  (M). 


1500.  Group  VI  (M). 


i 


1500.  Group  VI  (N). 


1450.  Group  V (K). 


GOTHIC  FABRICS. 


\\ 


SPANISH  GOTHIC. 


ITALIAN  GOTHIC. 


f 


GERMAN  — NETHERLANDS. 


in  ogival  framing  and  (H)  combination  circles 
or  scale  patterns  as  well  as  geometric  straight 
line  framing. 

1200-1300  introduced  as  features  of  design 
(I)  eagles,  falcons,  shields,  hounds,  swans,  foli- 
ated crosses,  crowns,  rayed  stars,  lions,  harts, 
boars,  leopards,  sun’s  rays  and  castle  motifs,  espe- 
cially in  the  fabrics  of  Italy  and  Sicily. 

1350-1500.  Group  V.  A characteristic  design  of  the 
Fifteenth  Century  was  the  use  of  (J)  reversed 
curves  so  arranged  that  they  made  frames. 

This  form  prototyped  the  Hogarth  line  of 
beauty.  (K)  Another  form  was  the  intersection 
of  a Hogarth  panel  by  two  bold  curving  stems 
coming  up  through  the  bottom  of  the  panel  and 
capped  by  a cone,  pineapple  or  fruit  device. 

Still  another  (L)  showed  a serpentine  stem 
or  winding  trunk  which  ran  through  the  Hogarth 
pattern  in  the  midst  of  a variety  of  botanical  forms. 


1500.  Group  VI.  Designs  adopted  a free  treatment. 

(M)  The  plans  of  previous  centuries  were  com- 
bined and  elaborated. 

(N)  Ornament  was  arranged  within  ogival 
frames,  springing  out  of  the  base  of  the  frame  to 
which  it  seems  to  be  attached. 

(O)  Interlacings  of  two  frames  of  which 
one  is  ogival. 

(P)  Ogival  frames  of  leaves  and  flowers  en- 
closing a large  concentric  pattern. 

(Q)  Elaborated  ogival  frames  caught  to- 
gether by  crowns. 

(R)  The  use  of  vases,  urns,  crowns  and  ani- 
mals became  common. 

1600-1700.  Group  VII.  (S)  During  1600-1700  we 
find  an  elaborate  use  of  European  garden  flowers 
instead  of  the  purely  tropical  Persian  verdure, 
following,  however,  the  general  ogival  form  of 
arrangement. 


FLOWER.-VA5E  PATTERN  LATE 
I6TH  CENTURY  VENETIAN 


DOUBLE  MULUOM  PATTERN  ITAUAT1 
^CENTURY  MAUCHESTrRBOCKCOUCCTirvH 


SINGLE  BULLION  PATTERN 

FLEMISH  l6,MrFNTI  PRY 


1500.  Group  VI  (M).  1500.  Group  VI  (R).  1500.  Group  VI  (P).  1500.  Group  VI  (P).  1500.  Group  VI  (N). 


70 


PALAIS  DE  FONTAINEBLEAU 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  FABRIC  DESIGNS. 


GOTHIC 


1700.  Group  VIII.  (T)  Pictorial  tapestries  and 
prints.  (U)  Pure  Renaissance  styles  or  develop- 
ments of  that  style — Louis  XIV  or  XV. 

(V)  Oriental  characteristics  of  either  the 
French  or  English  styles,  as  shown  in  the  scenic 
bits  of  Chinese  or  East  Indian  life. 

(W)  Louis  XVI. 


(X)  Classic  revival  examples  as  expressed 
by  the  late  Louis  XVI,  Directoire  or  Transition 
period  in  France  and  the  Adam  school  in  Eng- 
land. This  period  overlapped  into  1800  and  was 
generally  adopted  in  the  American  colonies. 

1800.  Group  IX  (Y)  Empire  and  Empire  influence. 
(Z)  Art  Nouveau. 


PERSIAN  CHARACTERISTICS 


D E VE LO PM E N T O F FLORAL  TYPES 


DURING  the  Sixteenth 
and  Seventeenth  Cen- 
turies there  were  three 
distinct  types  of  fabric-design 
popular  in  Europe,  (a)  the 
Renaissance,  ( b ) the  Oriental- 
Renaissance,  (c)  the  Eu- 
ropean floral. 

(a)  For  centuries  the 
textile  weavers  of  Europe  had 
been  accustomed  to  follow 
Oriental  design  (chiefly  Per- 
sian). Then  came  the  pure 
Renaissance  as  developed  in 


Iris,  or  fleur-de-lis.  Sev- 
enteenth Century  Venetian 

Italy  (1400),  in  France 
(1500),  in  England  and 
Spain  (1500),  and  in  Ger- 
many (1550),  and  the  Per- 
sian pink  and  rose,  the 
Rhodian  lily,  the  pomegran- 
ate, cone  and  palm,  gave 
way,  as  motifs,  to  the  Ro- 
man, Greek  and  Egyptian 
details,  the  anthemion,  lo- 
tus, iris  and  acanthus. 

(&)  During  the  Ren- 
aissance much  confusion 
of  types  was  precipitated  by 
the  commercialism  of  the 
Netherland  States  and  the 
explorations  of  the  Portu- 
guese, who  in  1140  had 
revolted  from  Spanish  rule, 
under  which  they  had  been 
a province,  and  established 
the  kingdom  of  Portugal ; the  Portuguese  during 
the  Fourteenth  Century  became  famous  sailors,  and 
early  in  1500  opened  possessions  in  Persia  and 
India. 

Portuguese-Persian  is  the  type  of  design  (1500) 
showing  the  Persian  influences  merged  in  the  Portu- 
guese, which  at  that  time  was  developing  the  Renais- 
sance spirit. 

For  centuries  prior  to  the  opening  of  the  East  by 
Portugal,  the  twenty-one  provinces  of  the  Netherlands 


Examples  of  Old  Silk,  1750. 


had  been  active  in  commerce  and  famous  for  the  great 
cities  of  Ghent,  Mechlin,  Antwerp,  Bruges,  Amster- 
dam, Leyden,  Delft,  Brussels  and  Rotterdam.  After 
the  forty  years’  war  with  Spain,  the  Northern  prov- 
inces, which  had  been  known  early  in  the  Seventeenth 
Century  as  the  Seven  United  Provinces  of  the  Nether- 
lands, formed  the  Dutch  Republic  and  replaced  the 
Portuguese  in  the  settlement  of  trading  posts  in  the 
East  Indies  (1610). 

During  the  Sixteenth  Century,  involved  as  they 
were  with  the  Netherlands  and,  subsequently,  with 
France  and  England,  who  sympathized  with  the 
Netherlands,  the  Spanish,  their  sea  power  gone,  had 
no  means  of  continuing  the  commercial  enterprises  of 

Portugal,  and  the  Dutch 
became  paramount  on  the 
seas. 

(c)  The  French  de- 
veloped still  another  form 
(the  European  floral)  be- 
ginning about  1650  under 
Louis  XIV,  presenting  the 
ferns  and  flora  of  Europe, 
especially  the  exquisite  ex- 
amples cultivated  in  the 
Royal  Gardens. 

Oriental  influence  in 
design  has  been  stimulated 
at  various  periods  by  polit- 
ical and  commercial  de- 
velopments. The  Dutch 
brought  East  Indian  types 
into  England  under  the 
Elizabethan,  Jacobean  and 
Queen  Anne  periods,  and 
English  women  perpetuated 
Oriental  art  in  their  em- 
broideries. It  seems  like  an 
anachronism  in  this  Renais- 
sance age.  Chinese  in- 
fluence was  strong  during 
the  period  in  France  un- 
der Louis  XV,  and  in  Eng- 
land under  George  II  and  George  III. 

Then  again  as  late  as  1760  British  rule  in  India 
began  to  stimulate  a demand  for  Indian  goods. 

These  phases  must  be  considered  in  studying  the 
periods. 


73 


Group  IV  (I).  Saracenic  Influence. 


TALIAN  GOTHIC. 


Fig.  V. 


Fig.  IV. 

(See  description  on  next  page.) 


Fig.  III. 


FABRICS  OF  NORTHERN  ITALY 

FIFTEENTH— SEVENTEENTH  CENTURIES. 


THE  Italian  period  of  art 
brought  great  prosperity  to 
Italy.  Foreign  courts 
adopted  Italian  customs  and  cos- 
tumes. Vast  quantities  of  rich 
hangings  were  used,  and  the  most 
gorgeous  form  of  dress  was 
affected.  John  the  Calabrian  was 
famous  for  a silk  loom  used  in 
the  Fifteenth  Century  and  this 
loom  was  imported  into  France 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XI 
(1475)  by  the  manufacturers  of  Tours.  A loom  asso- 
ciated with  the  name  of  Dangon  appeared  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Seventeenth  Century  and  was  hailed  as 
remarkable  in  its  ability  to  facilitate  the  weaving  of 
fabrics  in  several  colorings.  As  early  as  the  Thirteenth 
Century  Borghesano  of  Bologna  had  invented  a spin- 
ning machine  to  which  was  due  the  superiority  of  Ital- 
ian thrown  silks.  The  processes  of  manufacture  were,  at 
this  period,  greatly  improved.  In  1500  armures  be- 
came singularly  rich.  Cloths  of  gold  were  made, 
figured  velvets,  damasks  with  broche  effects  and  fancy 
Velvets. 

When  the  Arabs  under  Mohammed  had  con- 
75 


quered  the  countries  of  Persia  and  Syria  they  found 
the  manufacture  of  silk  a flourishing  industry.  From 
this  period  until  the  Fourteenth  Century  the  silk  in- 
dustry was  carefully  fostered  by  the  Mohammedans 
Next  in  importance  and  value  to  the  precious  stones 
the  chief  treasures  of  the  Caliphs  of  Bagdad,  Cairo 
and  Cordova  were  their  silken  goods.  Silk  fairs  or 
markets  were  held  periodically  at  Antioch,  Rey,  Or- 
zeroum,  Ispahan,  Jerusalem  and  Mecca.  The  Jews 
then,  as  now,  were  the  bankers  in  the  Mohammedan 
districts  and  the  purveyors  of  articles  of  luxury  to 
the  wealthy  Romans  of  the  South,  the  Gallic  Romans 
of  the  West  and  the  Goths  of  Northern  Europe. 

The  Italians  were  first  to  travel  over  Asia  Minor, 
and  together  with  the  Jews,  brought  Mohammedan 
products  into  Italy,  Spain,  France  and  England, 
eventually  establishing  silk  manufactories  in  Europe 
Notably  in  Sicily  and  Italy.  Palermo,  silk  factory 
started  1100;  Lucca,  famous  for  silk  weaving  1300. 

Persia  was  the  original  seat  of  art,  and  thence 
Persian  design  spread  and  was  adopted  and  adapted 
in  North  Africa,  Sicily  and  Arabia. 

In  the  Thirteenth  Century  Italian  designers  were 
inspired  by  Oriental  art.  In  the  Fourteenth  Century 
they  modified  their  treatment  of  animal  motifs,  aban- 


FABRICS  OF  NORTHERN  ITALY 


doning  the  fan- 
tastic type  (See 
Fig.  1 ) and 
adapted  anew 
school  of  flora, 
employing  t h e 
vine  and  oak 
leaf.  Venice 
gave  special  at- 
tention to  com- 
positions for  al- 
tar decorations. 
(See  Fig.  2.) 

Specimens  of 
t h e Fifteenth 
and  Sixteenth 
Centuries  dis- 
play a lingering 
trace  of  Ori- 
ental art  ty  p e s 
which  appeared 
a n d reappeared 
for  possibly 
commercial  reasons.  (See  Fig.  3.)  Lobed  leaves, 
rather  Gothic  in  character,  appeared  in  the  Fifteenth 
Century  and  were  abandoned  in  the  Sixteenth  Century. 
Thistles  and  flower  artichokes  often  formed  the  center 
of  the  composition,  and  around  the  central  motif  the 
old  geometrical  lines  were  replaced  by  foliage  forms, 
forming  curvilinear  or  ogival  borders. 

The  magnificent  Venetian  velvet  shown  in  Fig.  4 
illustrates  a varied  ornamental  framework  of  the  char- 
acter described.  Floral  effects  were  in  some  cases  the 
principal  motif,  in  others  the  accessory  ornament. 

In  Fig.  5 we  show  a fancy  velvet  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century ; a pale  yellow  ground  is  in  silk  armure,  the 
design  produced  by  the  cut  velvet  is  in  two  delicate 
colors,  mauve  and  light  green.  The  design  is  known 
as  the  flowered  Indian  meadows,  on  account  of  the 
numerous  shades  employed. 

Sixteenth  Century  designers  were  artists  having 
remarkable  facility  of  invention.  The  multiplicity  of 
rich  silken  stuffs  illustrates  very  forcibly  the  luxury 


Fig.  II. 


in  dress.  Where  gold  or  silver  did  not  figure  in  the 
design  it  appeared  in  the  form  of  embroideries  on 
satin  or  velvet.  It  was  a period  of  great  prosperity 
in  Italian  manufacture,  especially  the  factories  of 
Lucca,  Florence,  Venice  and  Genoa.  Italian  work- 
men, moreover,  were  in  demand  and  taught  their  arts 
contemporaneously  at  Avignon,  Lyons,  Tours,  Barce- 
lona, Bruges  and  London.  Even  at  the  end  of  the 
Seventeenth  Century  (1685)  official  Lyons  records 
speak  of  Italian  silk  fabrics  as  forming  the  ideal  models 
which  the  weavers  of  Lyons  were  to  keep  always  in 
view  as  the  standard  of  perfection. 

During  the  Seventeenth  Century,  however,  fash- 
ions were  no  longer  dictated  from  Italy.  Paris  be- 
came the  center  and  home  of  taste,  and  with  the  aban- 
donment of  long  dresses  the  vogue  for  large  designs 
had  vanished.  Smaller  compositions  were  executed 
not  only  in  dress  but  in  upholsterings,  and  little  by  little 
Italy  lost  its  prestige. 


KEY  TO  FABRIC  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Fig.  I. — Italian  cloth  of  gold  of  the  Fourteenth  Century.  Fabric  with  two  wefts  following  each  other;  the  green 
silk  weft  forming  the  ground  with  the  warp  likeness  in  green  silk;  the  gold  weft  forming  the  design. 

Fig.  II. — Italian  cloth  of  gold  of  the  Fourteenth  Century;  with  figures.  The  ground  is  in  satin  weave,  present- 
ing a glazed  effect;  the  warp  is  light  yellow,  the  weft  crimson.  This  crimson  weft  and  the  gold  weft  succeed  each 
other.  In  the  figures  the  face,  the  hand  and  the  feet  are  executed  with  a supplementary  weft  of  white  silk.  The  turf 
is  formed  by  another  supplementary  weft  in  green,  producing  a twilled  appearance. 

Fig.  III. — Fancy  cloth  of  gold,  with  velvet  ground,  of  Italian  manufacture  of  the  Fifteenth  Century.  Pomegranate 
design.  The  cut  velvet  is  of  crimson  shade ; the  design  being  formed  by  the  gold  weft.  The  center  of  the  pomegranate, 
which,  is  in  small  points,  is  in  knotted  gold  weft ; also  called  boucle  or  frise. 

Fig.  IV. — Fancy  Venetian  velvet,  with  gold  ground.  The  cut  velvet  is  in  crimson;  the  design,  produced  by  the  gold 
weft,  being  raised. 

Fig.  V. — Italian  fancy  velvet,  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.  Detached  floral  effects. 


7 6 


U\  \ ' l 


Italian,  Sixteenth  Century. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE 


:e,  1400 — 1500.\ 
e,  1500 — 1540.  ) 

1540 — 1643. 


ITALIAN. 

Alberti,  1404 — 1472. 

Early  Renaissance, 

High  Renaissance,  1500 — 1 
Late  Renaissance, 

.Florentine  Renaissance,  1400 — 1600. 
Brunelleschi,  1377 — 1446.  — 

Borgognone,  1450 — 1524. 

Fra  Angelico,  1387 — 1455. 

Luca  della  Robbia,  1388 — 1463. 

Botticelli,  1447 — 1510. 

Andrea  del  Sarto,  i486 — 1531. 

Benvenuto  Cellini,  1500 — 1571. 

Venetian  Renaissance,  1490 — 1600. 

Palladio,  1518 — 1580. 

Roman  Renaissance,  1444 — 1643. 

Donato,  1444 — 1515. 

Giacomo  Barozzio  (Vignola),  1507 — 1573. 
—Michael  Angelo  Buonarroti,  1474 — 1564. 
a*.  Raphael,  1483 — 1520. 

Milanese  Renaissance,  1400 — 1600. 
^Leonardo  da  Vinci,  1452 — 1519. 


FRENCH. 

French  Renaissance,  1500 — 1643,  a freely  ornamented  Gothic 
introduced  by  Fra  Giaconda,  1502,  under  Louis  XII,  de- 
veloped by  Francis  I,  who  reigned  1515- — -1547.  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  Seralio,  Cellini,  Italians,  influencing  the  style. 

ENGLISH. 

English  Renaissance,  1509 — introduced  by  Henry  VIII,  through 
his  architect,  John  of  Padua. 

FLEMISH. 

Flemish  Renaissance,  1507 — 

Antwerp  was  destroyed  in  1584  and  the  famous  manufactories 
were  dispersed.  — 

Dutch  republic  formed.  1581. 

GERMAN. 

German  Renaissance,  1550 — founded  by  Albrecht  Durer. 

SPANISH. 

Spanish  Renaissance,  1500 — reflected  the  character  of  the  Flem- 
ish Renaissance  introduced  by  Flemish  artists.  Carlos  I was 
born  and  educated  in  the  Netherlands  and  upon  attaining 
the  crown  his  advisers  were  Flemish.  The  style  was  termed 
the  Plateresque,  and  was  a sumptuous  mingling  of  Gothic 
and  classic  details. 


Italian,  Sixteenth  Century. 


ITALIAN  RENAISSANCE 


Francis  I,  1515 


ITALIAN  RENAISSANCE 


See  Chronology,  pages  77  and  114. 


terpreted  in  combination  with  cartouche,  strap  forms 
and  shields;  survival  of  Crusader  motifs. 

The  centaur,  showing  the  fore  part  of  a man  and 
the  hind  part  of  a horse,  was  frequently  combined 
with  a liberal  system  of  scrolls.  Masks,  the  female 
form,  birds,  animals  and  trophies  were  conspicuous. 

The  furniture  was  sometimes  supplemented  by 
painted  decorations  on  gilt  grounds  prepared  in  a 
gesso  material. 

Italian  tarsia  (inlay)  work  was  a characteristic 
type.  Sometimes  the  inlays  represented  floral  orna- 
ment, sometimes  landscapes  and  buildings.  The  tech- 
nique came  from  Persian  sources,  but  the  designs 
developed  chiefly  by  the  A enetians  were  usually 
classic.  In  the  decoration  of 
tables,  chairs  and  cabinets 
ebony,  ivory  and  metal  were 
employed. 

The  marriage  coffer,  of- 
ten in  carved  walnut,  was  a 
popular  article  of  furniture. 

Chairs  often  carved 
and  all  gilt.  Cab- 


DCRING  the  Fourteenth  Century  religion,  art 
and  science  expanded.  Humanity  broke  the 
feudal  fetters  and  a new  social  life  prevailed, 
stimulated  by  the  study  of  the  ancient  arts  and  sciences, 
and  wider  propagation  of  the  Christian  religion.  This 
period  was  the  revival  period  (Italian  Rinascimenta: 
French,  Renaissance) . 

Italian — Brunelleschi  was  the  first  artist  to  study 
the  monuments  of  classic  art.  To  his  genius  we  owe 
the  Early  Renaissance  in  Florence.  1 he  labors  of 
Brunelleschi  and  his  followers  were  soon  felt  in  other 
Italian  art  centers,  Rome,  Milan,  Bologna  and  \ enice. 
Its  spirit  was  brought  to  Rome  by  Donato,  the  teacher 
of  Raphael.  It  supplemented  the  brickwork  architec- 
ture of  Lombardi.  It  de- 
veloped in  Venice  under  Pal- 
ladio. The  student  who  un- 
derstands his  Greek  and  Ro- 
man will  very  readily  recog- 
nize the  Renaissance  spirit,  al- 
though outside  of  Italy  the 
classic  motifs  were 
often  liberally  in- 


French, Plenri  II. 


Italian. 


French  Henri  II. 


78 


ITALIAN  RENAISSANCE,  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Chair  legs  of  early  Sixteenth  Century  showed  braces  at  bottom  of  legs. 


Italian  Tarsia  or  Intarsia  Work. 


inets  were  made  with  veined  marble  tops  and  panels. 
In  the  Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth  Centuries  painted 
plaques  of  porcelain  took  the  place  of  these  marbles. 

In  the  Sixteenth  Century  Venice  was  renowned 
for  glass  manufacture.  Looking  glasses  were  invented 
1507  by  two  Murano  glass  makers  named  Andrea  and 
Dominico,  who  were  given  sole  privilege  to  “make 
ipirrors  of  crystal- glass  for  a term  of  twenty  years.” 
Previous  to  this  time  mirrors  were  of  polished  metal. 
The  frames  of  these  Venetian  mirrors  were  carved  to 
represent  doorways  of  windows,  pilasters,  friezes  and 
cornices  ; sometimes  gilt.  Beds  were  often  four-posters. 

Discoveries  of  the  stuccoes  of  ancient  Rome 
aroused  the  Italian  architects  to  a spirit  of  emulation' 
and  the  mural  work  became  extravagantly  elaborate, 
(ground  colors  were  laid  on  while  the  stucco  was  wet 
and  the  details  heightened.  Sometimes  gilt  frames  en- 


closed magnificent  paintings.  The  work  of  Raphael 
and  his  followers  was  often  applied  to  wall  decorations. 
The  superb  friezes  and  panels  constituted  the  best  work 
the  world  has  ever  seen. 

The  age  of  oak  extended  from  about  1500  to 
about  1660.  The  age  of  walnut  was  then  generally 
taken  up  and  extended  to  about  1700;  mahogany  1730. 

In  1530  furniture  with  a framework  and  panels 
as  well  as  chairs  began  to  adopt  a really  new  order. 
Pieces  of  furniture  became  more  complex,  with 
columns,  porticos,  pediments,  niches,  friezes,  car- 
touches,  caryatids,  etc.,  constituting  veritable  little 
monumental  fagades. 

In  France  the  Italian  and  Flemish  tastes  influ- 
enced development.  In  decorative  art  the  form  of 
Renaissance  known  as  Henry  II  lasted  for  half  a 
century. 


Italian  type  of  Cabinet  work.  Late  Sixteenth  Century. 


8o 


ITALIAN  RENAISSANCE. 


Uf.SfSS* 


m#  t st  c>  ilyii 


ITALIAN  RENAISSANCE 


« ■■  ■ •■ 


RENAISSANCE  — ITALIAN  — FRENCH 

See  Chronology,  page  114. 


IT  I S difficult  to  differentiate  between  Italian  and 
the  late  French  Renaissance.  The  French  were 
saturated  with  the  Gothic  spirit  and  for  a time 
it  was  difficult  to  displace  the  Gothic  feeling.  The 
new  art  was  finally  established  in  France  through 
Cellini,  Seralio,  Primaticcio,  Ilrosso  and  others  who 
came  from  Italy  and  by  French  artists  who  finally 
went  to  Italy  to  acquire  the  newer  style  evolved  from 
the  classic  remains  of  ancient  Ronle.  The  great 
French  carvers  of  this  period  were1*  Jean  Goujon, 
Nich.  Bachelier,  of  Toulouse,  Du  Cerceau,  who  pub- 
lished designs  for  all  kinds  of  decorations  and  carv- 
ings, and  Hugues  Sambin,  of  Dijon.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  and  during  the  early 
half  of  the  Seventeenth  the  superb  furniture  was 
covered  over  with  fabrics  to  such  an  extent  that  little 
by  little  the  frame  construction  ceased  to  be  visible. 

Wood  carving  was' one  <jf  the  gfeat  glories  of  the 
Flemish  art  throughout  the  Sixteenth  Century.  A 
Flemish  chair  of  the  second  half  of  the  Sixteenth  Cen- 
tury is  illustrated  on  page  85,  and  yet  it  might  safely 
be  regarded  as  Italian.  During  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury the  Flemings  devoted  themselves  mostly  to  the 
carving  of  large  pieces,  chairs  and  small  furniture 
being  produced  frequently  by  means  of  turning  lathes 
not  requiring  the  skill  of  the  carver.  The  style  was 
naturally  Italian,  although  Spanish  influence  made  it- 
self felt  during  the  Spanish  occupation  of  the  Nether- 
lands in  the  latter  part*  of  the  Sixteenth  Century. 

The  term  Renaissance  in  France,  includes,  accord- 
ing to  many  writers,  the  style  of  Louis  XIII.  An  over- 
upholstered form  eliminating  the  carved  features  may 
be  said  to  characterize  much  of  the  furniture  of  Fran- 
cis I,  Henri  II,  Francis  II,  Charles  IX,  Henri  III  and 
Henri  IV. 

We  are  disposed  to  recognize  Boule  of 
the  Louis  XIV  period  as  the  promoter  of  mar- 
quetry work,  but  inlays  went  back  to  the  tar- 
sias of  Italy,  Fifteenth  Century,  and  during  the 
period  of  Francis  I a great  deal  of  Indian 
work,  inlays  of  mother-of-pearl,  was  intro- 
duced by  the  Portuguese  merchants. 

Inlays  in  exotic  woods,  ivories,  ebony  and 
metal  were  also  used  in  France,  although 
French  cabinetmakers,  as  a rule,  confined 
themselves  to  carrying  in  relief  and  ignored 
the  Italian  colored  marquetry  in  the  style  of 
tarsia,  intarsia  pittoric  and  certosina.  The 
Gothic  type  lingered  until  1525,  and  French 
Renaissance  frequently  showed  Gothic  traces. 
Unquestionably  many  Italians  and  Flemings 
were  employed  in  France.  As  early  as  1593 
dressers,  trestles,  wooden  bed-steads  and 
wooden  chairs  were  upholstered. 

83 


It  is  difficult  to  identify  native  French  work  because 
the  cabinetmakers  travelled  frequently  from  one  town 
to ' another  wherever  building  operations  might  call 
them  and  good  wages  were  paid.  Thus  the  Italians 
were  scattered  over  France  and  the  work  that  they 
produced  was  handed  down  to  native  workmen  who 
copied.  French  design  may  be  characterized  as  an 
over  elaboration  of  the  more  classic  Italian  forms, 
which  latter  copied  the  old  Roman  and  Greek  in  strict 
conformity  to  tradition. 

We  fail  to  find  any  means  of  determining  defin- 
itely the  characteristics  of  the  Norman  school,  the 
Lyons,  Tours,  or  Burgundy.  We  do  well  if  we  de- 
termine approximately,  a style  like  that  of  Francis  I, 
by  the  end  of  whose  reign  Gothic  characteristics,  and 
especially  those  of  the  pointed  arch  had  practically 
disappeared. 

It  must  be  recalled  that  the  French  had  had  broad 
experience  in  wood  carving  and  naturally  soon  devel- 
oped a boldness  and  freedom  of  execution  which  gave 
to  their  late  Sixteenth  Century  work  characteristics 
in  no  way  to  be  confused  with  the  more  minute  and 
restricted  treatment  of  the  Italians. 

The  castles  of  Francis  I,  Blois,  Chambord  and 
Fontainebleau  were  masterpieces  of  the  French  Ren- 
aissance. 

French  life  under  Henri  II,  Charles  IX  and 
Henri  III,  all  semi-Italian  princes,  dominated  by  their 
Florentine  mother,  Catherine  de  Medici,  was  luxurious 
in  the  extreme. 

Both  Henri  II  and  Henri  IV  styles  showed  a 
prevalence  of  interlaced  strap-work,  delicate  reliefs 
and. the  use  of  the  cartouche. 


V 


\ 


FRENCH  RENAISSANCE  ORNAMENT. 


Louis  XIII.  . Italian  ongln’  1590' 

FRENCH  RENAISSANCE. 


Francis  I,  1525. 


1580. 


The  illustrations  above,  as  well  as  those  appearing  at  the  head  of  page  87,  are  reproductions  of  Venetian  and  Genoese  velvets 
and  gold  brocades  of  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries.  The  reproductions  are  one-quarter  the  size  of  the  originals 

which  show  colored  motifs  on  gold  ground. 


FRANCIS  I.  1515-1547. 


\ 

\ 

l 

> 


\ 

% 

\ 

> 

\ 


Venetian  and  Genoese  velvet  and  gold  brocades  of  the  late  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries.  Originals  in  the 
Museums  of  Berlin,  Vienna,  Munich,  Dresden  and  Nuremberg. 

FLEMISH  RENAISSANCE 

DEVELOPED  FROM  THE  ITALIAN  1507. 

See  also  page  114. 


TH  E North  country,  now  Hol- 
land, and  the  South  country, 
which  included  Flanders,  now 
Belgium,  were,  up  to  the  period  of 
Spanish  domination,  of  homogeneous 
taste  and  character.  With  the  Re- 
formation came  a gradual  division 
of  interests  and  sympathies.  The  North  country,  in- 
cluding about  two-thirds  of  the  Netherlands,  estab- 
lished the  Dutch  Republic,  while  the  South  country, 
alienated  from  her  Northern  sister,  soon  lost  su- 
premacy in  the  arts.  Upon  the  traders  of  Holland 
fell  the  mantle  of  the  Portuguese  voyagers,  and,  in 
India  especially,  they  opened  great  avenues  of  trade. 

For  centuries  the  products  of  Flanders  and  later 
the  products  of  Holland  poured  into  Great  Britain. 
England  supplied  most  of  the  wool  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  Flemish  tapestries,  and  in  Medieval  days 
could  always  depend  upon  the  support  of  the  Flemings 
by  her  control  of  the  wool  situation. 

From  the  date  of  the  Dutch  conquest  over  Spain, 
1600,  accomplished  with  English  aid,  the  relations  of 
the  two  countries  became  still  more  intimate,  affect- 
ing materially  the  decorative  arts  of  England  from 
Elizabeth  down  to  William  and  Mary. 

In  the  Eleventh  Century  Cordova  leathers,  su- 
perbly gilded  and  painted,  were  introduced  into  Flan- 
ders; the  term  soon  applied  to  similar  leathers  pro- 
duced in  Portugal,  Flanders,  France  and  Italy.  Spanish 
leathers  (Cordova  proper)  were  usually  in  high  relief 
and  Saracenic  design ; leathers  of  Flanders  and  Italy, 
frequently  of  calf,  were  of  low  relief  in  exceedingly 
delicate  design,  mythological  or  ecclesiastical. 

The  earliest  notable  tapestries  of  Europe  were 

Flemish  type,  early  Seventeenth  Century.  The  prototype  of  the 
later  English  type.  Known  frequently  as  Charles  II.  1660. 


Flemish  (1100).  On  account  of  the  great  import- 
ance of  the  arts,  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  adopted  the 


87 


RENAISSANCE  ORNAMENT. 

Late  .French  showing  influence  of  Flemish  strap-work. 


FLEMISH  RENAISSANCE 


Golden  Fleece  as  the  title  of  the  great  order  of  Knight- 
hood. In  the  Fifteenth  and  Sixteenth  Centuries  the 
tapestry  makers  of  Italy,  France,  Germany  and  Spain 
borrowed  the  tapestry  arts  from  Flanders. 

The  furniture  of  Medieval  days  was  mostly  of  a 
fixed  character.  Cupboards,  wardrobes  and  larders 
were  built  into  the  panelings.  Up  to  1300  the  carver 
and  carpenter  were  one  and  the  same.  Then  came  a 
division  of  labors. 

Carving  was  usu- 
ally applied  to  fixed 
parts  of  the  house. 

Crude  beds 
and  benches  were 
supplied  with 
cushions  carried  in 
the  chests.  Walls 
were  hung  with 
printed  linens  and 
tapestries. 

In  the  Four- 
teenth Century  we 
find  not  only 
carved  oak  but  in- 
lays of  ebony  and 
ivory. 

Hangings  were 
the  chief  feature  of 
the  interior  decora- 
tion. The  Italians 
had  a monoply  of 
the  trade  with  the 
Orient,  and  Europe 
was  supplied  by 
them  with  Oriental 
rugs.  Up  to  1400 
there  was  little 
movable  furniture 
to  be  found  even  in 
the  palace — simply 
benches,  trestles 
chests  and  forms. 

The  plain  box  or 
chest  when  raised 
on  feet  or  legs  was 
a dressoir,  credence 
or  sideboard.  The 
armoire  was  de- 
veloped by  building 
chest  upon  chest  with  open  fronts.  In  some  old  Medie- 
val manuscripts  we  find  chests  so  large  that,  covered 
with  skins  or  matting,  they  were  used  for  beds.  The 
difference  between  a dressoir  and  buffet  was  simply 
that  the  dressoir  was  used  for  display;  the  buffet  for 
use. 

I he  number  of  shelves  on  a dressoir  was  regu- 
lated by  etiquette.  The  common  people  could  use  a 


dressoir  with  two  shelves",  the  nobility  with  three 
shelves,  the  royalty  four  or  five  shelves. 

In  1420  we  hear  of  Cordova  leathers  being  used 
on  the  floor,  around  the  bed,  and  of  leathers  for 
chamber  hangings.  Charles  V of  France  (1380)  used 
leathers  on  the  floor  in  Summer  time,  and  throughout 
the  period  we  find  leathers  used  for  upholstering.  Dur- 
ing the  Fifteenth  Century  Flemish  workmen  emigrated 

in  great  numbers 
to  England,  Spain, 
Italy  and  even 
Hungary. 

The  Flemish 
were  almost  as  cele- 
brated for  their 
leathers  as  for  their 
tapestries.  Gold 
and  painted 
leathers  were  com- 
m on,  a it  d red 
morocco  leathers 
from  Spain  were, 
from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Six- 
teenth Century, 
generally  used  for 
wall  hangings  and 
table  covers.  In 
1539  the  tapestry 
factories  of  France 
sent  to  Flanders  for 
her  weavers.  The 
Flemish  cabinet- 
make  r,  architect 
and  weaver  was  in 
great  demand  dur- 
ing the  Renais- 
sance, and  in  Spain, 
France  and  Eng- 
land he  found  con- 
genial residence. 

In  the  Seven- 
teenth • Century  the 
Dutch  commerce  in 
the  Far  East  not 
only  brought  into 
•Europe  vast  stores 
of  Indian  art,  but 
the  masters  of 
vessels  were  commissioned  by  nobles  and  potentates 
to  bring  home  monkeys,  parrots,  peacocks,  pheasants, 
cats  and  dogs. 

In  1609,  the  East  India  Company  issued  letters 
for  reserving  “all  strange  fowls  and  beasts  to  be  found 
there,  for  the  Council.”  The  cockatoo  and  the  parrot 
in  wicker  cages  were  much  in  evidence  in  the  paintings 
of  that  period.  Naturally  the  artists  were  much  im- 


EARl.Y  DUTCH 


89 


GERMAN  RENAISSANCE  (BEGINNING  1550). 


FLEMISH  RENAISSANCE  (BEGINNING  1507). 


SWISS  RENAISSANCE. 


RUSSIAN  RENAISSANCE. 


SPANISH  RENAISSANCE. 


1 


3 


1.  Detail  of  choir  stalls,  Convent  of 
San  Marcos,  Leon. 

2.  Gothic  chair,  Fifteenth  Century. 

3.  “Samson,”  carved  choir  stall  of 
Leon  Cathedral. 

4.  Armchair,  Seventeenth  Century. 
Museum  of  Salamanca. 

5.  Spanish  cabinet  and  stand, 
carved  chestnut,  first  half  of  Six- 
teenth Century,  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum. 

6.  Ivory  box,  Ninth  Century, 
Madrid  Museum. 

7.  Chair  and  table,  Salamanca 
Cathedral. 


5 


6 7 

SPANISH  RENAISSANCE. 


R U S S I A N — S P A N I S H RENAISSANCE 


pressed,  and  the  Dutch  embroideries  and  prints  of 
that  age  were  full  of  Eastern  character,  floral  and 
animal. 

France  owed  much  to  Belgium  and  Holland  dur- 
ing the  first  part  of  the  Seventeenth  Century,  when 
Flemish  and  Dutch 
artists  contributed 
so  materially  to  up- 
building the  French 
industries.  But 
France  repaid  with 
interest,  for  in  1685 
the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes 
sent  50,000  families 
of  the  best  French 
blood,  intellect,  art, 
culture  and  crafts- 
manship into  vol- 
untary exile. 

Russian  Re- 
naissance — - The 
Renaissance 
reached  Russia 
through  Italian  ar- 
tists, who  worked 
always  subordinate 
to  Oriental  and 
Scandinavian  influ- 
ences. Polish  art, 
however,  was  more 
susceptible  to 
Italian  feeling,  and 
the  Renaissance 
ornament  of  Po- 
land was  purer. 

Norwe- 
gian Renais- 
sance — Norway 
and  Denmark  took 
the  Renaissance 
feeling  from  Flan- 
d e r s.  Norway 
peasants  were 
natural  wood- 
workers. 

Spanish  Re- 
naissance— In  711 
the  Moors  invaded 
Spain.  In  755  they 
established  the 

Caliphate  of  Cordova.  In  1031  the  Caliphate  was 
dissolved.  Subsequent  to  1200  the  Moors  in  Spain 
were  confined  to  the  Kingdom  of  Granada.  By  1610 
the  Moors  were  expelled  from  Spain. 

Early  in  the  Middle  Ages  mansions  of  Spain  were 
furnished  in  a style  of  rude  grandeur.  They  were 


modeled  after  the  Roman  and  Byzantine.  In  time  the 
furniture  of  Christian  Spain  was  affected  by  the  Gothic 
and  Renaissance  arts,  with  always  a trace  of  the 
Moorish.  The  furniture  of  the  Middle  Ages  was 
much  the  same  throughout  all  Europe. 

The  older 
Spanish  furniture 
was  frequently 
decorated  with  deli- 
cate ironwork  and 
with  columns  of 
bone  or  ivory, 
painted  or  gilded, 
often  exhibiting 
Moorish  influence. 
Some  specimens 
were  richly  inlaid 
with  silver. 

The  bedstead 
was  always  a con- 
spicuous feature  of 
the  house  and  was 
frequently  of  iron 
or  bronze.  Wood 
succeeded  metal  in 
the  latter  part  of 
the  Thirteenth  Cen- 
tury and  the  beds 
grew  even  larger, 
rising  so  high  above 
the  floor  that  sets 
of  steps  were  re- 
quired to  climb  into 
them.  Sometimes 
these  steps  were  in 
themselves  magnifi- 
cent. Silver  qnd 
rich  carvings, 
elaborate  mosaics, 
were  common. 


Italian  turned  rail  furniture.  Illustr 
by  Flemings,  period  Henri  IV,  Franc 
in  Flanders,  England,  France,  1660. 

Cacquetoires.  Chair  in  marg 


ations  1,  3 and  4,  Italian.  Adapted 
e.  Rail  back  chairs  were  common 
In  the  latter  country  called  Chaise 
in  of  page,  probably  Flemish. 


A description  of  the 
furniture  and  furnishings 
would  tax  the  imagination, 
velvets  and  gold  and  even 
precious  stones  being 
woven  into  fabrics. 


95 


’ -‘-  va 


— 


?'  V >N'-W ?' : *j»i 


A PAGE  OF  SWISS  COFFERS 


RUSSIAN  — SPANISH  RENAISSANCE 


Spanish  leather  of  about  1700. 

The  homes  of  royalty  were  of  extraordinary 
magnificence,  and  while  Gothic  was  the  general  ten- 
dency during  the  Gothic  period  the  Oriental  influences 
were  conspicuous  and  the  native  Moorish  a strong 
factor. 

By  the  time  of  the  Renaissance  the  love  of  luxury 
still  further  increased.  We  read  of  the  one-hundred- 
and-twenty-pound  silver  balustrade  of  Dona  Juana, 
sister  of  Philip  II ; it  stood  around  her  bed.  We  read 
of  Turkish  carpets,  Spanish  carpets,  Toledo  gold 
cloths,  wonderful  embroideries  and  tapestries. 

According  to  the  Marquis  of  Monistrol,  Spanish 
furniture  up  to  and  including  the  beginning  of  the 
Renaissance,  consisted  of  burial  chests,  storage  chests, 
archive  chests,  treasure  chests,  brides’  chests,  chests 
for  storing  arms,  and  grain  chests.  The  Spanish 
Moors  employed  but  little  furniture.  The  cushion  was 
viewed  with  much  favor  by  Spanish  Christians. 
Among  the  Moors  the  cushion  was  used  as  a seat  of 
honor  because  it  raised  the  occupant  above  the  level 
of  those  seated  on  the  floor.  The  women  of  Christian 
Spain  were  always  given  cushions  while  the  men  made 
use  of  stools  or  chairs. 

In  the  Seventeenth  Century  the  dais  or  raised 
platform  was  introduced.  In  1515  the  municipal  laws 
of  Granada  covered  the  “operations  of  the  people  who 
worked  in  the  street  of  chair-makers  and  carpenters.” 
These  laws  were  found  necessary  owing  to  the  false 
and  faulty  workmanship  prevailing  at  this  time.  In 
Granada  the  laws  provided,  among  other  things,  that 


the  work  must  be  bought  at  public  auction,  where  all 
could  discover  its  character.  It  must  be  thoroughly 
dry  and  free  from  flaws.  The  law  also  covered  all 
the  details  of  how  a chair  should  be  made  and  each 
chair  had  to  be  stamped  with  the  city  mark  and  a 
tax  paid  upon  it. 

During  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries 
large  arm-chairs  of  quadrangular  form  were  used. 
The  backs  and  seats  were  of  leather  and  embroidered 
stuffs. 

Cabinets  were  an  important  part  of  the  furnish- 
ings. Cabinets  and  tables  were  inlaid  with  ivory, 
tortoise  shell,  ebony,  bronze  and  silver.  Frames  in- 
laid in  this  way  were  hung  on  the  walls.  Women  sat 
on  low  stools  on  the  ground.  Beds  were  hung  with 
rich  brocades  embroidered  in  gold  and  trimmed  with 
Point  d’  Espagne.  On  the  splendid  carpets  were  placed 
silver  braziers  which  burned  crushed  olive  stones.  The 
walls  were  covered  with  tapestry  and  rich  silks  and 
from  early  times  stamped  leathers,  painted  and  gilded 
“guadameciles”  were  used  to  a very  great  extent.  This 
stamped  leather  was  also  met  with  largely  in  England. 
The  word  comes  from  the  name  of  the  village,  Gha- 
dames  in  Africa  which  was  celebrated  from  the 
Twelfth  Century  for  this  industry.  The  art  was  im- 
ported by  the  Moors  to  Spain,  Cordova  becoming  a 
great  center  of  the  industry,  though  this  leather  was 
made  also  at  Seville,  Granada,  Toledo  and  Barcelona. 
In  1575  the  fame  of  Cordova  for  such  leathers  was 
so  great  that  the  name  “Cordova  leather”  was  applied 
to  those  made  in  other  parts  of  Spain  as  a general 
term.  Leonard  Will- 
iams, the  correspond- 
ing member  of  the 
Royal  Spanish  Acad- 
emy, has  made  a deep 
study  of  Spanish  fur- 
niture and  we  are  in- 
debted to  his  book  on 
“The  Arts  and  Crafts 
of  Older  Spain”  for 
the  illustration  h e r e 
shown.  Nothing  more 
beautiful  can  be  re- 
produced than  the 
choir-stalls  in  the 
Cathedrals  of  Spain. 

The  most  notable  ex- 
ample of  Spanish 
Renaissance  is  doubt- 
less the  decoration  of 
the  choir  of  the  Ca- 
thedral at  Toledo. 

Spanish  Renaissance 
Chair,  covered  with  Gua- 
dameciles. 


97 


Tvrolean  ornament. 


SWITZERLAND  AND  THE  TYROL 


IT  IS  not  easy  to  describe  the  arts  of  Switzerland. 
Swiss  museums  are  rich  in  the  glory  of  the  past. 
Museums  which  contain  interesting  specimens  of 
the  artistic  productions  of  the  different  districts  may 
be  found  in  Berne,  Basle,  Zurich,  Aargau,  Zug  and 
Geneva.  In  considering  Swiss  work  we  must  consider 
the  geographical  position  of  Switzerland.  To  the  west 
Switzerland  was  influenced  by  France,  to  the  south 
by  Italy,  to  the  east  by  Bavaria.  In  the  Fifteenth  and 
Sixteenth  Centuries  the  influences  of  Germany  pre- 
dominated. In  the  Seventeenth  Century  French  art 
was  an  influential  factor. 

The  Swiss  have  been  always  cabinetmakers  and 
woodcarvers.  Switzerland  has  been  always  famous  for 
its  coffers,  sometimes  used  for  preserving  treasures  or 
rare  spices,  garments  or  linens.  In  the  houses  of  the 
wealthy  they  served  the  purpose  of  a treasure  chest  or 
safe.  The  lid  was  utilized  as  a seat  and  where  large 
enough  it  served  also  as  a bed.  At  Versailles,  France, 
coffers  were  in  general  use  as  beds  in  about  1752. 
When  traveling  the  coffer  served  as  a trunk.  In  Swit- 
zerland these  coffers  were  always  elaborately  carved. 

Fig.  1 is  a mixture  of  Gothic  and  Renaissance  as 
a Swiss  peasant  understood  it.  It  is  dated  1594.  The 
contours  of  the  design  are  colored  in  order  to  throw 
the  ornament  into  relief.  At  the  Historic  Museum, 
Basle. 

Fig.  2,  coffer  from  Canton  Solothurm.  The  dol- 
phins are  peculiar  to  this  Canton. 

Fig.  3,  dated  1626,  probably  a bridal  chest  with 
inlay.  Now  in  the  museum  at  Zurich. 

Fig.  4,  a monastery  coffer,  date  1614,  now  at  the 
Zurich  Museum. 

Fig.  5,  bedside  coffer. 

Fig.  6,  Renaissance.  The  Renaissance  began  to 
make  itself  felt  in  Switzerland  from  1 520- 1 n30.  Tt  is 
unusual  at  this  period  to  find  the  field  treated  in  divi- 
sions, preference  being  for  long  flat  surfaces  upon 
which  to  carve.  In  this  example  we  have  a different 
design  upon  each  field. 

Fig.  7,  early  Fifteenth  Century,  with  the  iron 
bands  and  clamps  is  decidedly  Flemish. 


Fig.  8,  Fifteenth  Century  coffer.  An  excellent 
type  of  Fifteenth  Century  peasant  carving. 

The  Tyrol  district  is  an  Eastern  continuation  of 
Switzerland,  and  is  naturally  influenced  by  Germany 
on  the  North  and  East  and  Italy  on  the  South.  The 
history  of  the  Tyrol  is  partly  German  and  partly 
Italian.  In  1 early  times  the  Tyrol  district  was  con- 
quered by  the  Romans,  15  B.C.  Subsequently  it  was 
overrun  by  German  tribes. 

For  centuries  the  Goths  occupied  the  district  and 
the  pagan  creed  prevailed  here  until  the  Sixth  Cen- 
tury. Hence  we  have  at  all  times  the  Gothic  influence 
and  in  the  furnishing  of  their  homes,  simple  in  the 
cottage  life  or  elaborate  in  the  palace  structure,  we 
have  also  the  influences  of  Northern  Italy.  One  must 
bear  in  mind  that  the  Swiss  are  famous  as  wood- 
carvers  and  their  skill  in  this  direction  follows  natural 
forms,  preserving  usually  the  Gothic  characteristics. 
In  the  use  of  fabrics  the  Tyrol  people  followed  the 
work  of  Northern  Italy,  but  in  their  panel  carvings 
the  work  was  typically  native. 


Tyrolean  carved  ornament. 


9S 


ENGLISH  RENAISSANCE 

ELIZABETHAN— JACOBEAN— STUART— CROMWELLIAN. 


A LIBERAL  interpretation  of  what  constitutes  the 
English  Renaissance  must  carry  the  student 
back  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII,  and  at  the 
outset  one  must  understand  that  the  Renaissance  cov-- 
ers  all  that  period  beginning  with  Henry  VIII  and 
extending  through  the  Elizabethan  (the  reign  of  Eliz- 
beth,  1558-1603),  and  the 
Jacobean  (the  reign  of  James 
I,  Charles  I and  the  Cromwell 
period,  1603-1659),  the  Ital- 
ian classicism  of  Inigo  Jones 
and  the  French  classicism  of 
Sir  Christo  p her  Wren, 
through  the  Stuart  or  Jacobe- 
an period  well  into  the  reign 
of  George  II.  Indeed,  what 
is  generally  regarded  as  the 
Georgian  period,  prolific  with 
French  Renaissance  fioriation, 
is  really  the  termination  of  the 
English  Renaissance. 

The  entire  Renaissance  development  in  England 
is  full  of  canfusion  because  subdivided  by  historical 
data  in  many  cases  confusing. 

Under  Henry  VIII,  Torrigiano,  Ronezzano  and 
John  of  Padua  introduced  the  Italian  style  1512-1536, 
but  following  upon  Henry  VIII’s  quarrel  with  the 
Pope,  the  consequent  change  in  religion  and  the  im- 


poverishment of  England,  the  Italians,  now  regarded 
with  ill  favor,  returned  home,  leaving  but  little  or  no 
influence  behind  them,  and  their  field  of  occupation 
was  soon  filled  by  Germans  and  Flemings. 

Beginning  with  1558,  we  have  what  is  arbitrarily 
called  the  Elizabethan,  but  Elizabethan,  although  the 

reign  ended  with  1603,  ex- 
tended as  a type  clear  through 
the  Jacobean  period,  and  the 
term  Jacobean  means  simply, 
if  it  means  anything,  an 
Elizabethan  development.  The 
term  Stuart  relates  to  that 
period  beginning  with  James 
I and  extending  d o w n to 
Queen  Anne — all  subdivisions 
of  the  Renaissance. 

As  early  as  1556  great 
quantities  of  Flemish  cabinet 
fronts  and  other  cabinet  work 
were  imported  into  England. 
Elizabethan  houses  were  built  by  German  and  Flemish 
architects.  Strap-work  designs  were  common,  male 
and  female  figures  with  strap-work  on  the  front  in  lieu 
of  clothes.  To  the  Flemings  we  attribute  the  dia- 
mond-shapes superimposed,  in  moldings,  on  square 
panels;  the  numerous  juttings,  and  angles;  the  ex- 
tensive use  of  turned  work  plain  and  carved  frequently 


99 


ELIZABETHAN  — JACOBEAN. 


Jacobean  ok  Jacobian  : 


JACOBEAN. 

rom  Latin  Jacobus,  James;  pertaining  to  the  style  of  decoration  of  James  I, 


Rennaissance — Elizabethan — The  chairs  on  the  top  row  represent  the  types'  prior  to  1610,  Elizabethan  or  Jacobean.  The 
second  chair  from  the  top  is  an  English  type  beginning  about  1650.  The  chairs  of  the  bottom  row  are  Charles  II  type,  1675 
or  thereabouts.  The  formation  of  the  legs  shows  the  French  spirit,  although  the  carving  is  of  Flemish  origin. 


Elizabethan- Jacobean  Embroideries. 


glued  upon  panels  on  beds,  round  applied  buttons,  and 
pendants  and  ovals  set  in  relief  upon  panels,  as  well 
as  drop  ornaments  added  below  tbe  table  frames  or  tbe 
center  of  arches  in  panels. 

It  was  all  Renaissance,  whether  from  Italy  or 
through  the  more  obscure  channels  of  Germany  and 
Flanders.  The  Renaissance 
movement,  developed  u n - 
d e r Elizabeth,  was  con- 
temporary with  a similar 
movement  in  France,  Flan- 
ders and  Germany.  H ence 
the  presentation  of  styles 
closely  related.  We  asso- 
ciate with  the  Elizabethan 

* 

liberally-paneled  rooms  a n.d 
stuccoed  ceilings.'  We  find 
the  guilloche,  common  in  As- 
syrian and  Byzantine  art,  and 
other  simple  details,  m u c h 
used  at  this  time  owing  to  the 
fact  that  English  workmen, 
w h o copied  the  foreigners, 
were  restricted  in  ..their  work 
to  simple  details,  necessitated 
by  the  use  of  oak  instead  of 
the  softer  walnut,  and  this 
fact  will  aid  one  to  de- 
termine the  origin  of  work 
of  this  period. 

Great  importations 
came  from  Flanders,  so  great  in  fact  that  Elizabeth 
introduced  prohibitive  measures  to  stop  the  imports 
and  encourage  English  workmen.  Elaborate  interiors 
were  of  terra-cotta.  Stuccoed  ceilings  were  of  great 
beauty,  but  the  work  was  confined  mostly  to  palaces. 

The  same  characteristics  followed  through  the 
Jacobean  period,  1603-1652.  The  cabinetmakers  made 


much  of  this  patch-work  furniture,  and  there  was 
much  use  of  the  “S”  curve  in  cabinetmaking.  Carv- 
ing was  in  low  relief.  The  “S”  curve,  the  semi-circle 
pattern  and  the  interlaced  semi-circle  pattern  and  “C” 
curves  became  more  common  with  this  period. 

From  the  architectural  standpoint  this  period  is 
conspicuous  with  the  work 
of  Inigo  Jones  (born  1572 
died  1653),  probably 
the  first  English  architect 
who  practiced  the  Renais- 
sance style  in  its  simplicity. 
Walpole  says  of  him,  “Eng- 
land adopted  Holbein  and 
Van  Dyke ; she  borrowed 
Rubens,  but  she  produced 
Inigo  Jones.”  Inigo  Jones 
studied  closely  the  work  of 
the  Italian  Palladio,  and 
Charles  I encouraged  him 
liberally.  Here  we  have, 
then,  during  this  Jacobean 
period  furniture  and  furnish- 
ings the  work  of  the  cabinet- 
makers which  was  of  a de- 
cidedly hybrid  type,  and  far 
removed  from  the  exquisite, 
dignified  and  artistic  work 
purely  Italian  that  was  ac- 
complished by.  Jones  and 
his  contemporaries. 

Inigo  Jones  died  in  1653,  and  a few  years  later 
Sir  Christopher  Wren  became  famous  in  a further 
development  of  the  Renaissance  feeling.  Sir  Chris- 
topher studied  in  Paris  and  was  saturated  with  the 
French  Renaissance  spirit,  hence  he  was  profuse 
where  Jones  showed  restraint.  His  style  was  almost 
Baroque.  Pendants  of  flowers,  shells  and  fruits  were 


103 


ENGLISH  RENAISSANCE 


used  in  a prodigal  spirit.  Carving  was  of  an  over- 
elaborate and  highly-ornamented  character.  It  gave 
the  reputation  to  Grinling  Gibbons, 
who  was  responsible  for  so  much  that 
was  good  in  carved  foliage,  birds, 
fruits,  shells,  cupid  faces,  etc.,  that 
Charles  II  employed  him  on  the  palace 
work  and  subsequently,  1714-1721,  he 
was  “m  aster  carver  in  wood”  to 
George  I,  with  a salary  of  eighteen 
pence  a day. 

While  we  frequently  refer  to  this 
prolific  form  of  work  made  famous  by 
the  efforts  of  Wren  and  Gibbons  as 
Georgian,  we  must  understand  that  it 
developed  in  the  late  Renaissance  and 
was  a part  of  the  Renaissance  period, 
and  the  Jacobean,  Cromwellian 
and  Queen  Anne  belong  in  archi- 
tecture to  the  Renaissance  schools  ; 
thus  we  are  confronted  by  confus- 
ing data,  throughout  this  entire 
English  history  of  decoration. 

The  furnishings  were  of  a com- 
mercial character  and  seldom,  if 
ever,  connected  with  the  archi- 
tectural spirit. 

Frequently  there  was  con- 
sistency in  the  wood  trims  of  the 


jg  ■' . - 


work  done  by  the  architect,  but  the  work  was  not 
carried  into  the  furniture,  which  was  usually  of 
Flemish,  Dutch  or  French  origin. 

Wood-paneled  chairs  were  not 
generally  displaced  until  the  middle  of 
the  Jacobean  period.  Then  the  Flem- 
ish  carved  type  appeared,  which  in 
England  is  sometimes  called  Jacobean, 
sometimes  Charles  I,  and  if  cane- 
seated,  Charles  II.  It  is  easy  to  trace 
the  Flemish  origin  even  if  English  de- 
tails,  crowned  cupids  surmount  the 
back  ; and  where  the  legs  and  the  under- 
bracing convey  something  of  the  Louis 
XIV  suggestion,  we  can  account  for 
the  French  influence.  With  the  re- 
turn of  the  cavaliers  to  England,  just 
after  Cromwell’s  downfall,  1660, 
the  royalists  brought  back  with 
their  furnishings  from  France  a 
good  deal  of  its  furniture,  and  thus 
we  can  trace  the  French  spirit  in 
what  we  now  regard  as  the 
Charles  II  type. 

This  spirit  was  further  ac- 
centuated at  a little  later  period 
w hen,  in  1685,  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  was  revoked  and  the 
Protestant  artisans  of  France,  in- 


house,  mantels,  panelings,  wainscoting  and  stucco  eluding  many  Flemish  born,  fled  to  England. 


1 .2  3 4 5 

Illustration  No.  1 represents  a Flemish  type  common  also  with  the  Italian.  In  France,  1640,  the  time  of  Louis  XIII, 
this  type  is  called  the  chaise  perroquet  or  chaise  cacquetoire. 

No.  2 is  called  by  English  authorities,  a Derbyshire  or  Yorkshire  chair,  being  made  In  great  quantities,  1650-1660. 
Illustration  No.  3,  a Lancashire  chair,  about  1675.  rNo.  4,  1650.  Derbyshire.  ' 

Illustration  No.’ 5,  Engl ishf=sbbw i li g Spanish  influence,'  doubtless  the  wOrk  of  Flemish  designers  when  under  Spanish 
domination,  1660.  Yorkshire  and  Derbyshire. 


JAMES  I,  1603-1625,  founder  Stuart  Period. 

THE  evolution  of  the  spindle  or  rail-back  chair 
comes  from  the  Italian  through  the  Flemish  and 
French  to  the  English,  where  it  is  arbitrarily 
called  Jacobean  and  even  localized  as  Derbyshire,  Lan- 
cashire and  Yorkshire. 

Where  the  crown  appeared,  sometimes  crown  and 
cupid,  it  was  a Royalist  design,  and  followed  Charles 
II’s  restoration.  S and  C shapes  were  frequently 
seen  upon  chairs  that  were  unquestionably  of  French 
inspiration,  a development  following  the  social  rela- 
tions contemporary  with  Charles  II. 

Following* — the  S=£errrrrs — and  the  C- forms  from 


CHARLES  I,  1625-1649,  Commonwealth  to  1659. 

1580  to  1665,  we  find  a chair  with  the  top  of  its  back 
finished  off  fan-shaped  and  later  still  shell-shaped, 
but  this  takes  us  well  into  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne. 

Cane  seats  came  in  through  the  trading  of  the 
East  India  Companies,  but  the  exact  date  cannot  be 
fixed.  It  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  1650  in  Eng- 
land, 1620  France;  the  poet  Chaucer,  in  his  “Canter- 
bury Tales,”  1400,  mentions  wicker  chairs.  Mahogany 
was  not  used  until  after  1700. 

It  must  be  recalled  that  all  ceremonious  and  pre- 
tentious form  was  confined  to  castles,  and  not  until 
late  in  the  Seventeenth  Century  did  the  work  of  the 


1^80-1690.  Note  the  French  spirit  in  third  table-leg, 
<■ 1690, 


also  those  on  extreme  right.  During  the  William  and  Mary  period,  about 
veneering  became  popular. 


105 


AN  ELIZABETHAN  DINING-ROOM 


POSTLIP  HALL,  GLOUCESTERSHIRE 

From  Fash's  “ Mansions  of  England  in  the  Olden  Times.' 


ELIZABETHAN 


INTERIORS 


fit  MS; 


HARDWICK  HALL-ELIZABETHAN,  1 5 9 9. 


decorator  extend  beyond  the  homes  of  the  nobility. 

In  the  palaces  the  ceilings  were  superb,  the  interior 
woodwork  was  of  a most 
elaborate  character ; one 
must  realize  this  and  in 
watching  the  development  of 
furniture  and  furnishings 
one  must  not  confuse  the 
commercial  work  of  the 
artisan  with  the  more  pre- 
tentious work  of  the  archi- 
tect. 

In  the  homes  of  the 
wealthy  the  walls  were  fre- 
quently hung  with  tapestries, 
ceilings  elaborately  stuccoed 
often  colored.  Fabrics  of 
elaborate  character,  velvet, 
brocades  and  damasks  were 
used  and  the  floors  were 
covered  with  Oriental  rugs, 
excepting  in  chambers  for 
public  use,  on  the  floors  of 
which  they  scattered  rushes. 

It  was  an  age  of  enibroider- 
i n g ; Flemish  leathers  and 
embroideries  of  many  vari- 
eties were  used.  Panels 
were  full  of  heraldic  devices 
and  crests.  In  small  rooms 
chintzes  from  India  were 
used.  India  prints  in  the 
Oriental  spirit  were  con-  Italian,  wood-cut  illustration 


spicuous  in  bed  coverings,  portieres,  table  covers  and 
balustrade  hangings.  There  were  no  wall-papers  used, 

but  prints  of  cotton  or  linen 
or  embroideries  were  in 
general  favor. 

The  upholsterings  were 
all  that  can  be  imagined. 

Fabrics  of  every  sort 
were  manufactured. 

Glass  mirrors  were 
made  in  Venice,  1507,  when 
methods  had  been  discovered 
of  applying  the  metal  leaf. 
Mirror  makers  had  their 
own  corporation. 

. During  Elizabeth’s  time 
a mirror  was  a rare  posses- 
sion and  worthy'  of  a rich 
frame,  but  about  1685  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy  installed 
a number  of  Venetians  at 
Lambeth,  where  they  made 
looking  glasses. 

Grandfather’s  clocks  also 
appeared  about  1680.  Queen 
Elizabeth  had  chartered  the 
East  India  Company  in  1600, 
but  it  suffered  serious  com- 
petition with  the  Dutch, 
French  and  Portuguese  com- 
panies. 

The  chair  foot  or  the 


from  Dante’s  “Inferno,” 


e g terminal  indicates, 


in 


1 10 


1660  1690  1714 


some  measure,  the  period  of  the  furniture.  The  scroll 
foot  was  Flemish  with  French  influence,  of  the  type 
that  came  in  about  1670. 

The  fluted  foot  was  Spanish  in  origin  and  goes 
back  to  1600-1700. 

The  ball  foot  or  bulb  foot  is  Early  Dutch  or 
Flemish. 

What  is  known  as  the  spade  foot  came  in  with 
the  Sheraton  and  Ilepplewhite  period,  late  in  the. 
Eighteenth  Century. 


The  Renaissance  feet  were  sometimes  square 
blocks,  discs  or  balls  in  flattened  form.  Frequently 
the  legs  rested  upon  parallel  bars. 

Various  animal-feet  were  generally  used  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  and  we  therefore  find  them  to- 
gether with  scroll  feet  in  good  Renaissance  examples. 
They  were  not  associated  generally  with  Queen  Anne 
until  the  Eighteenth  Century.  Sometimes  we  find  the 
cabriole  leg  and  claw  foot  in  old  Spanish  pieces  of  the 
Seventeenth  Century,  but  they  can  be  distinguished 


The  Oriental  motif  from  which  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean  embroidering  took  inspiration. 


Ill 


ENGLISH  RENAISSANCE 


rooms  set  aside  for  study. 

In  a few  houses  ceil- 
ings were  carved  elabor- 
ately, which  style  was  imi- 
tated in  plaster.  Windows 
were  furnished  with  little 
diamonds  or  squares  of 
glass  and  often  in  the  cen- 
ter were  armorial  pieces. 
Even  at  this  time  floors  of 
private  chambers  were  of 
inlaid  wood.  Green,  yel- 
low and  crimson  were 
favorite  colors  for  bed  and 
window  draperies  and  the 
materials  were  silk  damask, 
worsted  damask,  satin,  silk, 
or  serge. 

The  names  are  not 
easy  to  define.  We  know 
that  of  the  silken  stuffs 
there  is  a constant  refer- 
ence' in  old  documents  to 
lustering,  paduasoy,  doubt- 
less Padua  soie  (silk), 
tabby,  taffeta,  sarcenet, 
cheney  (China).  In  woolen 
goods  we  have  reference  to 
serge,  dor  neck 
(linen  print),  per- 
p e t u a n a , mohair, 
camoca  or  c a m a k , 
camlet,  say,  serge, 
rep,  watchet,  fustian, 
damask,  and  kitter- 
minster  or  kidder- 
minster,  some  of 
which  were  mixed 
with  camel’s  hair  or 
threads  of  silk. 
There  were  also 
dimity,  flowered 
chintz,  and  c a 1 1 i - 
man  co  (a  glazed 
linen),  as  well 
as  Turkey  and 
“wrought  -work” 
(which,  of  course, 
was  needlework) . 
East  India  goods, 
such  as  printed 
calico  and'  seer- 
sucker were  of  this 
period. 

White  curtains 
for  the  bed  were 
rarely  employed,  in- 


from  the  Queen  Anne 
styles  by  the  front,  back 
and  side  stretchers  that 
connect  them  near  the 
base.  The  claw-and-ball 
foot  was  distinctly  Queen 
Anne,  but  the  form  came 
through  Louis  XIV  and 
late  Jacobean. 

Fabrics. 

Tapestries  applied 
above  high  wainscoting 
were  in  common  use.  Some- 
times tapestry  hung  down 
over  the  panel.  For  a while 
during  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses  tapestries  were  aban- 
doned in  England  but  un- 
der Henry  VIII  fresh  im- 
petus was  given  and  later 
some  superb  examples  were 
introduced  in  the  Mortlake 
factory  established  by 
James  I.  Another  very 
popular  fabric  was  a 
“painted  cloth,”  canvas 
painted  in  mottoes. 

In  “Much  Ado  About 
Nothing,”  Beatrice 
says  that  she  “g  o t 
all  her  wit  from  the 
painted  cloth  hang- 
ings.” Embossed  and 
gilded  leather,  cloths 
of  gold  and  the 
richest  kinds  of 
silks  and  velvets 
were  in  use  and 
what  is  referred  to 
as  a novelty  is 
quoted  by  Pepys  in 
his  diary,  1663,  “I 
bought  my  w i f e a 
c h i n t , that  is  a 
painted  Indian  cal- 
ico for  to  line  her 
new  study.”  The 
term  study  at  this 
period  must  have 
referred  to  a sort  of 
boudoir  or  library, 
although  in  some 
houses  there  were 


On  the  right,  typical 
of  Elizabethan  em- 
broideries. Sixteenth 
and  Seventeenth  Cen- 
turies. 


112 


1640 


1650 


1660 


1690 


1690 


variably  satin  and  dimity  being  employed, 
worked  in  colored  crewels  or  worsted. 

Valances  were  much  used;  leather,  vel- 
vet, brass  nails,  needlework,  embroiderings, 
were  all  popular. 

As  early  as  1300  velvet  is  mentioned  in 
English  inventories  and  French  documents. 
At  that  time  it  was  a flock-like  material.  In 
Italy,  beginning  1600,  design  was  still  influ- 
enced by  the  Orient,  and  France  was  a great 
producer  of  velvets  and  damasks. 

While  silken  stuffs  had  been  made  in 
Europe  at  -an  early  date  (see  page  35,  chap- 
ter on  Development  of  Textile  Weaving),  it 
was  not  until  the  commencement  of  the  Euro- 
pean trade  with  the  East  and  the  introduction 
of  silk  culture  into  Italy  and  France  that  the 
lower  price  of  the  raw  material  encouraged 
the  manufacture.  In  the  time  of  Queen  Eliz- 
abeth a charter  was  granted  to  the  Dutch 
settlers  in  Norwich  for  figured  loom  weav- 
ing, and  damasks,  flowered  and  striped,  were 
made.  The  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
1685,  strengthened  the  English  trade,  and  by 
1700  Flemish  and  Huguenot  weavers  settled 
in  London,  Spitalfields,  Cheshire,  Lancaster, 
Derbyshire,  Kent,  Essex  and  Norfolk. 

The  illustrations  on  the  right  show  the 
Jacobean  panel  work  of  1600-1620.  , The  rest 
of  the  pieces  show  the  French  development 
immediately  following  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II,  1660,  and  the  bulbous  formations, 
distinctly  William  and  Mary. 

The  eight-legged  chair  would  be  properly 
called  Louis  XIV,  probably  made  by  French 
exiles,  who  settled  in  England  in  1685.  These 
William  and  Mary  styles  were  usually  walnut, 
and  need  never  be  confused  with  mahogany 
of  a later  period. 


1 1 3 


THE  RENAISSANG 

(See  also  page  77) 

ITALIAN.  FRENCH.  FLEMISH. 

1400-1500.  Early  Renaissance. 

1400-1600.  Florentine  Renaissance: 

Brunelleschi,  1377-1446.  Borgog- 
none,  1450-1524.  Fra  Angelico, 

• 1387-1455:  Luca  della  Robbia, 

1388-1463.  Botticelli,  1447-1510. 

Andrea  del  Sarto,  1486-1531.  / 

Benvenuto  Cellini,  1500-1571. 

1400-1600.  Milanese  Renaissance: 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  1452-1519. 

1444-1643.  Roman  Renaissance: 

Donato  Lazzari  (Bramante),  1444- 
1515. 

Giacomo  Barozzio,  1507-1573. 

Michael  Angelo  Buonarroti,  1474- 
1564. 

Raphael,  1483-1520 

1490-1600.  Venetian  Renaissance: 

Palladio,  1518-1580.  (See  England, 

1603-1649  for  Italian  influence.) 

1500.  High  Renaissance. 


1540-1643.  Late  Renaissance. 


1515.  Francis  I. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  Cellini  in- 
fluenced the  introduction  of 
Italian  Renaissance. 

Flemish  workmen  given  generous 
employment. 

1549-1559.  Henri  II. 

The  furnishings  up  to  Louis  XIII 
were  similar  to  late  Elizabethan. 
(See  English,  1603-1649.) 

1559- 1560.  Francis  II. 

1560- 1574.  Charles  IX. 

1574-1589.  Henri  III. 


1589-1610.  Henri  IV. 

Edict  of  Nantes  granting  religious 
freedom. 


1604.  Organization  of  East  India 
Trading  Company. 

1610.  Louis  XIII. 

1643-1715.  Louis  XIV. 

1642.  Richelieu’s  East  India  Com- 
pany. 

1653.  English  cavaliers  settled  in 
France  after  downfall  of  Charles  I, 
and  on  returning  under  Charles  II, 
brought  back  French  influence  in 
art. 


1685.  Daniel  Marot,  one  of  the  most 
talented  decorators  who  flourished 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  fled 
with  other  Protestants  at  the  time 
of  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes,  a measure  originally  granted 
by  Plenri  TV  to  allow  toleration  of 
worship.  When  revoked  in  1685  by 
Louis  XIV  thousands  of  Protestants 
fled  to  Holland  and  England.  The 
French  style  of  Marot  and  his  con- 
freres became  conspicuous  in  the 
English  period  just  prior  to  Queen 
Anne. 


1507  Development  from  Italian. 


1576.  All  Netherland  provinces  united 
and  drove  out  the  Spanish. 

1581.  Formation  Dutch  Republic. 
Consisting  of  Holland,  Zealand, 
Utrecht,  Gelderland,  Groningen, 
Friesland  Overyssfel. 

1584.  Antwerp  destroyed.  Famous 
manufactures  dispersed.  Flanders, 
Brabant,  Limburg,  Luxemburg,  Ar- 
tois, Hainault,  Namur,  Zutphen, 
Mechlin  became  finally  merged  as 
Belgium. 

Dutch  traders  ruled  the  commerce 
of  the  world. 

1600.  Spanish  dominion  overthrown. 

1602.  Dutch  East  India  Co.  incor- 
porated. East  Indian  textiles  and 
pottery  furnished  Oriental  motifs 
for  embroidery. 

1613.  New  Amsterdam,  America,  set- 
tled by  the  Dutch. 

1648.  Republic  of  the  United  Prov- 
ince of  the  Netherlands  recognized 
by  Spain. 

1664.  New  Amsterdam  was  seized  by 
Duke  of  York,  brother  of  Charles  IT. 
and  name  changed  to  New  York. 


EVELOPMENT 

SPANISH.  GERMAN. 

/ 


ENGLISH. 


1500.  At  first  Moorish  or  Hispano- 
Moresque.  Italian  style  was  adopted 
gradually,  developing  what  was 
termed  the  Plateresque,  a sumptu- 
ous mingling  of  Gothic  and  classic 
details. 


1550.  Carlos  I was  born  and  edu- 
cated in  the  Netherlands,  and  upon 
attaining  the  crown  his  advisers 
were  Flemish,  and  the  late  Spanish 
Renaissance  showed  Flemish  char- 
acteristics. 


1500-1600.  Portugal  enjoyed  monop- 
oly of  trade  with  India. 

1600.  Spanish  withdrawal  from  the 
Netherlands. 


1550.  Founded  by  Albrecht  Durer. 
Perpetuated  by  Holbein  and  Peter 
Vischer. 


1509.  Renaissance  introduced  by 
Henry  VIII,  who  employed  many 
Italian  artists.  This  period  is  some- 
times called  Early  English  or  Tu- 
dor, Henry  VII  having  founded  the 
Tudor  line,  1485. 

1534.  Reformation.  Departure  of 
Catholic  Italian  workmen  from 
England.  Italian  influence  was  soon 
forgotten  in  the  employment  of 
German  and  Flemish  artisans. 

1558-1649.  Elizabethan  style.  Devel- 
opment along  German  and  Flemish 
lines.  Protestant  element.  Dutch 
commerce  made  such  inroads  that 
Elizabeth  took  measures  to  check  it. 
The  full  development  of  Elizabethan 
style  included  what  is  popularly 
called  Jacobean. 


1600.  English  East  India  Trading 
Company  incorporated.  Charter  re- 
newed several  times,  and  active  up 
to  1813. 

1603-1649.  Jacobean  (Jacobus,  James), 
a continuance  and  full  development 
of  Elizabethan.  Under  James  1 
came  the  classic  development  of 
Inigo  Jones  ( 1625-1652),  who  studied 
under  Palladio,  Italy. 

1625-1649.  Charles  I.  Charles  be- 
headed 1649,  and  many  royalists  fled 
to  France. 

1653.  Cromwellian. 

1660.  Charles  II.  To  the  Flemish 
spirit  was  added  French  character- 
istics through  the  sentiments  ab- 
sorbed by  the  exiled  royalists  who 
now  returned  to  England. 

New  Amsterdam  seized  (see  Flem- 
ish). 

1685-1689.  James  II. 

1689-1702.  William  and  Mary. 


WILLIAM  AND  MARY  PERIOD,  ABOUT  1690 





Early  Jacobean. 


FOLLOWING  THE  JACOBEAN 


CHARLES  II,  1660-1685.  James  II, 

THROUGHOUT  this  entire  period  which  fol- 
lows the  Jacobean  epoch  we  have  such  a con- 
fusion of  styles,  adaptations  of  French,  Flem- 
ish and  Italian,  that  it  seems  absurd  to  attempt  to 
distinguish  definitely  the  beginning  and  ending  of 
periods  like  the  Cromwellian,  which  only  lasted  five 
years,  or  the  James  II, 
which  only  lasted  four 
years,  or  the  William  and 
Mary,  which  lasted  twelve 
years. 

It  is  impossible  to  draw 
a strict  line  of  demarca- 
tion between  the  end 
of  the  Jacobean  and  the 
beginning  of  the  Queen 
Anne.  Queen  Anne 
reigned  1702-1714,  but 
what  is  known  in  art  as 
the  Queen  Anne  Period 
had  its  inception  in  1660. 

One  may  say  of  this  im- 
mediate period  that  it  is 
Charles  II  if  French  in- 
fluences are  particularly 
strong,  or  William  and 
Mary  if  Dutch  influences 
are  prevalent,  but  Queen 
Anne  in  its  entirety  was 
strictly  Dutch  and,  as  will 
be  seen  later  on,  had  a 
style  distinctly  its  own. 

Before  reaching,  however, 
the  narrowed  confines  of 
the  period  that  began  in 
1702  we  have  to  do  with 


1685-1689.  William  and  Mary,  1689-1702. 

the  French-Flemish  and  the  Flemish-Dutch,  which 
carries  us  through  the  late  Jacobean  and  past  the 
James  II,  1685-1689,  and  William  and  Mary,  1689- 
1702. 

Flemish  characteristics  began  to  depart  and  the 
French  details  of  Louis  XIV  were  adopted  in  the 

reign  of  Charles  II. 
History  tells  of  the  lavish 
extravagances  of  his  mis- 
tresses, especially  Louise 
de  Queroualle,  who  was 
presented  to  Charles 
through  the  instrumental- 
ity of  Louis  XIV,  for 
whom  she  became  prac- 
tically a spy.  The  tastes 
of  the  court  were  dis- 
tinctly  French.  Chairs 
with  heavily  upholstered 
seats  and  backs  became 
popular.  The  cane  chair 
took  on  the  scroll  leg.  In 
1675  marquetried  furni- 
ture came  in.  Lacquered 
furniture  became  popular. 
Again  in  that  year  we 
notice  the  flat  serpentine 
stretcher,  drop  handles 
and  brass  key  escutcheons 
to  doors.  Bedroom  chairs 
would  often  be  made  in 
sets  and  covered  with  vel- 
vet to  match  the  hangings 
of  the  bed.  Double-seated 
chairs  or  settees  came  into 
use.  The  French  leg  and 


Chair  with  all  covered  frame,  popular  in  France  and 
England  as  early  as  1600. 


117 


1 


FOLLOWING  JACOBEAN 


foot  came  in  1680 — the  S-shaped  leg,  serpentine  like. 

In  1685  came  James  II  and  a marked  develop- 
ment in  furniture.  With  1685  appeared  the  tall- 
backed  French  chair.  It  was  a more  severe  style  of 
furniture  than  that  of  Charles  II.  French  dining- 
room chairs  were  tall,  narrow-backed,  without  arms 
and  with  sometimes  an  upholstered  seat.  They  had 
the  French  characteristics.  Towards  the  end  of 
fames  II  and  during  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary 
the  crest  at  the  top  of  the  back  was  often  placed  as 
a finish  to  the  back  posts  instead 
of  between  them. 

The  strong  French  char- 
acteristics were  due  largely  to 
the  work  of  Marot,  a prominent 
decorator  who  fled  from  France 
at  the  time  of  the  revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantes,  1685. 

Many  other  French  artisans 
worked  in  England  at  this  time, 
just  prior  to  the  Queen  Anne 
period,  introducing  what  ap- 
peared to  be  anachronisms. 

While  cushioned  seats  were 
not  uncommon  at  an  e a r 1 i e r 
period,  chairs  made  with  fixed 
upholstering  did  not  come  into 
use  until  about  1550,  the  period 
of  Elizabeth  in  England  and 
Henri  II  in  France.  Flenry 
VIII  had  gathered  together  a 
small  army  of 
French,  Italian  a n d 
German  workmen 
and  at  this  early 
date  the  Italian  and 
Flemish  X chairs 
were  used,  uphol- 
stered seats  and 
backs.  Prior  to  this 
date  the  furniture 

backs  being  carved  did  not  encourage  arm  and  back 
upholsterings  and  movable  cushions  were  common. 
The  chairs  were  without  arms  to  accommodate  the 
monstrous  skirts  of  the  women.  At  the  period  of 
James  1 the  Farthingdale  chair  was  popular.  It  had  no 
arms  and  allowed  the  dress  to  spread  in  all  directions. 
By  1620  we  have  the  type  illustrated  where  the  frame 
is  entirely  covered. 

CHARACTER  OF  THE  WOOD-FINISH. 

The  use  of  varnishes  goes  back  3,000  years. 
The  Egyptians  were  expert  in  the  use  of  varnish,  but 
the  Europeans  learned  their  art  from  the  Far  East 
Old  English  term,  vernish ; French,  vernis ; Italian, 
vernice. 

Italian  Renaissance  furniture  probably  received 
an  oil  finish.  Martin,  a carriage  painter,  born  1726, 


Above,  types  of  inception  Queen  Anne 
below,  Cromwellian,  1653-1659. 


rivalled  the  lacquers  of  China  and  Japan  with  a var- 
nish which  was  hard  and  transparent,  now  known  as 
Vernis-Martin.  From  1744  to  1764  Martin  was 
granted  a monopoly  to  manufacture  this  lacquer. 

Elizabethan  and  Jacobean  oak  furniture  received 
only  a light  coat  of  dark  oil  varnish.  The  pieces  were 
then  rubbed  with  beeswax  and  given  a rich  tone. 

It  may  be  safely  assumed  that  during  the  “Age 
of  Oak,”  1500-1660,  and  the  “Age  of  Walnut,”  1660- 
1700,  little  varnish  was  used. 

Italian  Renaissance  furni- 
ture, 1400-1643,  was  of  oak, 
lime,  willow,  sycamore,  chest- 
nut, ebony  or  walnut,  and  was 
wax  polished,  oiled  or  left 
natural. 

The  French,  Flemish  and 
Spanish  Renaissance,  1500-1643, 
used  a great  deal  of  oak,  chest- 
nut and  walnut  polished,  oiled 
or  left  natural.  The  Portuguese 
traders  from  about  1525-1576 
and  the  Dutch  traders  subse- 
quent to  1576,  brought  into 
Europe  a great  many  foreign 
woods,  but  they  were  not  to  any 
extent  employed  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  furniture  until  the  middle 
of  the  Seventeenth  Century.  The 
finishing  of  woodwork  was  hand 
polished.  Indeed,  in  England  it 
was  not  until  the 
Queen  Anne  style 
came  in  that  we  notice 
any  efforts  at  eve  n 
shellacking.  The  old- 


time cabinetmaker  ob- 
tained  his  toned 
effects  by  exposing  his 
woods  to  the  light  un- 
til the  surfaces  had 
darkened,  then  he  rubbed  in  the  oil  and  beeswax.  Be- 
ginning about  1680  a spirit  and  shellac  preparation 
was  used.  Then  followed  the  Louis  XIV  period  and 
soon  afterward  Vernis-Martin  and  a host  of  imitation 
varnishes. 

As  early  as  1601  there  are  records  of  lacquer 
ware  brought  from  China  and  Japan,  hence  the  term 
japanned,  as  applied  to  lacquering.  The  Oriental 
method  required  a vast  degree  of  patience  and  skill, 
sometimes  requiring  eighteen  or  twenty  treatments  and 
never  less  than  three  treatments.  The  Chinese  and 
Japanese  lacquer  was  derived  from  a juice  of  the 
varnish  tree,  which  hardened  into  a black  resin. 
Lacquer  wares  were  brought  into  Holland,  England 
and  France  in  large  quantities  throughout  the  Seven- 
teenth Century,  particularly  by  the  East  Indian  Com- 


1 18 


FOLLOWING  JACOBEAN 


English  elm  has  been  always  used,  especially  for 
chest  drawers  and  tables.  It  has  a plain  straight  grain 
and  is  not  as  attractive  as  oak.  Some  of  th^jfi^en 
Anne  dressing  tables  were  elm.  Laburnum,  a 
wood  of  the  Alps,  was  excellent  as  a veneering. 


ive 


panies.  Cane  belongs  essen- 
tially to  the  Jacobean  period, 
England  about  1650  and 
Louis  XIII  France.  The 
earliest  long  clocks  belong  to 
the  period  of  Charles  II  and 
were  inlaid. 

Excellent  m a r q u e t r y 
work  following  Dutch  styles 
was  popular  in  England  dur- 
ing William  and  Mary’s 
regime.  Veneering  was  first 
used  in  the  reign  of  William 
and  Mary,  until  which  time 
furniture  had  been  made  solid. 

The  beginning  of  walnut 
in  England  was  about  the 
period  of  Charles  II.  Dur- 
ing the  Queen  Anne  period 
the  prevailing  woods  were 
walnut,  beech,  holly,  birch  and 
yew. 

Cedar  was  used  for  room  paneling  in  England  as 
early  as  1678;  also  for  chests. 


A F<a  r thin  g d a 1 e 
Chair,  1620.  See 
first  column,  page 
118. 


William  and  Mary. 


Hardwick  Hall,  Derbyshire,  from  an  old  print.  The  Presence  Chamber.  No  carpetings  used,  the  floors  strewn  with  rushes. 

Tapestry  on  wall. 


LATE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  ENGLISH  FURNITURE,  1 6 7 5 - 1 5 9 0 . 


Reading  from  left  to  right,  the  portraits  above  are  those  of  Rembrandt,  1607-1669;  Van  Dyke,  1599-1641; 

1666;  Rubens,  1577-1640. 


Franz  Hals,  1581- 


THE  FRENCH  RENAISSANCE 


Development  of  Baroque  in  Roman  Renaissance,  1540 — Classic  influence  of  Inigo  Jones  (James  I),  Sir  Christopher  Wren 


(Charles  II,  George  I 

DURING  the  period  known  as  the  Late 
Renaissance,  Michael  Angelo,  apostle  of 
free  thought  in  art,  broke  away  from  the 
fetters  of  classicism  and  produced  some  ex- 
traordinary results.  These  forms  in  the  hands  of  a 
master  were  acceptable,  but  when  others  tried  to  fol- 
low the  results  were  less  pleasing  and  became  known 
as  Baroque. 

Details  were  combined  and  superimposed  in  a 
fashion  extravagant  and  frequently  grotesque.  It  was 
the  outcome  of  that  universal  spirit  of  unrest  which 
revolts  at  rule  or  order,  and  the  effort  to  do  something 
different  simply  resulted  in  ornament  that  was  impres- 
sive and  astonishing  at  the  sacrifice  of  taste  and  unity. 
The  term  Baroque  became  eventually  an  adjective  ex- 
pression for  a corrupt  style. 

In  France  tbe  Baroque  was  little  in  evidence. 

In  Germany  it  was  passively  accepted.  We  find 
little  Baroque  in  England  for  the  reason  that  apart 
from  the  work  of  John  of  Padua  under  Henry  VIII 
there  was  no  Italian  influence  until  James  I,  and  then 
the  influence  became  Palladian  or  Classic,  for  through- 
out the  period  of  Michael  Angelo,  Palladio  was 
equally  active  in  maintaining  the  integrity  of  the  pure 
style  — Venetian  Renaissance  — and  Inigo  Jones  in 
England  was  a staunch  Palladian.  His  work  as  well 
as  that  of  John  Webb,  Edward  Carter  and  Nicholas 


),  Louis  XIII  of  France. 

Stone,  expressed  admirably  the  pure  Italian  spirit. 

The  work  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren.  Nicholas 
Hawksmoor,  Sir  John  Van  Brugh,  James  Gibb,  and 
other  eminent  architects,  continued  the  classic  spirit 
of  the  French  style  in  architecture  through  the  Crom- 
wellian, Charles  II,  James  II,  William  and  Mary, 
Queen  Anne  and  well  into  the  period  of  George  I. 
Sir  Christopher  died  in  1723.  Ceilings  were  all  plas- 
tered, stuccoed,  flat  or  in  relief,  divided  into  panels 
and  circles,  hexagons,  and  rhomboids,  the  borders 
being  enriched  with  flowers  and  fruits  of  all  sorts, 
well  raised,  following  the  extraordinary  carvings  of 
Grinling  Gibbons;  borders  were  often  flat  ornaments 
of  Greek  and  Roman  design  or  flowing  Renaissance ; 
the  panels  were  often  painted.  Indeed,  painted  ceil- 
ings were  common  throughout  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury, the  great  artists,  even  Rubens,  lending  their 
talents  to  ceiling  painting.  i 

Sir  Christopher  Wren’s  work  for  William  and 

Mary  and  Queen  Anne  was  augmented  by  the  ceilin 

and  wall  decorations  of  Verrio,  the  Neapolitan,  whq 

also  did  wonderful  ceiling  work  for  Charles  II; 

. . i 

prolific  with  goddesses,  saints,  satyrs,  muses,  cupuls 

and  inspirations  of  the  New  Testament  and  Romarj 

History. 

There  was  little  or  no  Baroque  in  England  ; theri 
was  little  in  Holland,  and  even  where  it  existed  ir 


Reading  from  left  to  right,  the  portraits  above  are  those  of  W.  Jamnitzer,  1508-1585;  P.  Vischer,  1460-1529;  Albrecht  Diircr. 

1471-1528;  H.  Holbein,  1497-1543. 


i 


i 


i 


123 


-xro. 


Above,  lambrequin  ornamentation  in  the  style  of  Louis  XIII— XIV.  Below,  Baroque  furniture  of  the  end  of  the  Renaissance. 


France  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  become  a style;  it 
was  rather  a decadent  taste  indulged  by  the  few  and 
condemned  by  the  many. 

With  'Louis  XIII,  1610-1643,  the  French  Renais- 
sance came  to  an  end.  It  was  a period  of  assimilation. 
French  life  under  Flenri  II,  Charles  IX  and  Henri 
III,  semi-Italian  princes,  was  dominated  by  Catherine 
de  Medici.  Henri  IV  sent  artisans  to  Holland  to 
study  carving,  and  at  the  time  of  Louis  XIII,  decora- 
tive art,  as  expressed  by  the  work  in  his  palace,  was 
Italian,  German,  Flemish  and  Swiss.  A definite 
French  period  did  not  develop  until  under  Louis  XIV. 


In  1603  the  Jesuits,  who  had  been  expelled  from 
France  in  1595,  were  recalled  and  in  their  religious 
zeal  bent  their  efforts,  especially  in  art,  to  the  propa- 
gation of  the  classic  styles.  Not  only  marquetry,  ebony 
furniture  and  painted  furniture  were  made,  but  the 
Oriental  spirit  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII  became 
conspicuous  in  the  woods  that  were  used  and  the  styles 
of  the  fabrics. 

Cane  was  imported  as  seat  coverings.  Chairs 
were  covered  with  leather  or  fabrics  and  upholstered 
heavily.  The  reception  bed  was  introduced.  Ladies 
received  their  guests  en  deshabille,  a fashion  that  pre- 


124 


THE  FRENCH  RENAISSANCE 


vailed  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  The 
fashion  of  covering  furniture  with  drap- 
ery  can  be  traced  back  to  the  Fourteenth 
Century  in  Italy.  Bed  draperies  were 
then  used  and  canopies  were  in  vogue ; 
but  the  Louis  XIII  period  may  be  said 
to  have  introduced  the  use  of  table  cov- 
ers and  scarfs. 

The  French  silk  industry  developed 
rapidly  and  quantities  of  costly  materials 
were  to  be  had  in  France;  they  were 
hung  upon  the  walls  and  displayed  over 
tables  and  screens.  See  page  131. 

The  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  tree 
had  been  successful  in  the  South.  Lyons 
was  manufacturing  great  quantities  of 
taffetas.  Weavers  had  come  from  Ana- 
tolia to  do  embroidering  in  the  Oriental 
style  (largely  Arabian  and  Ottoman), 
and  before  long  France  was  also  making 
its  first  typical  design,  employing  as 
motifs  the  exotic  plants  found  in  the  royal 
garden.  By  the  beginning  of  the  Six- 
teenth Century  fancy  silk  manufacture, 
including  cloths  of  gold,  velvet,  satin, 
silk  and  silk  mixtures,  had  been  intro- 
duced in  France;  into  Tours  by  Louis 
XI,  Lyons  by  Francis  I,  Paris  by  Henri 
IV,  Avignon  by  the  Popes. 

In  the  Seventeenth  Century,  Colbert 
provided  regulations  covering  the  manu- 
facture at  Tours,  Lyons,  Paris  and 
N i m e s . Contemporaneously 
were  famous  Venetian  damasks, 

L u c c a n damascenes,  Genoese 
velvets  and  mixtures  called 
filatrices,  poplins,  feradines, 
Egyptian  damasks,  caffarts, 
Bruges  satins,  etamines, 
fustians  and  dimities. 

Italian  manufacturers  lost  a 
great  deal  of  their  German, 


Above,  pedestal  of  the  Louis  XIII- 
period. 


-XIV 


Swiss,  Flemish,  English  and  Spanish 
trade.  Soon  the  American  colonies  were 
heavy  buyers  of  French  stuffs.  Paris 
gained  supremacy  in  matters  of  fashion. 
The  French  styles  were  accepted  in  all 
the  capitals  of  Europe. 

Jacquard  has  always  received  credit 
for  inventing  a machine  which  bears  his 
name,  but  in  1605  Dangon  made  a ma- 
chine which  produced  great  complica- 
tion of  color  effects.  G a 1 1 a t i e r and 
Blache  in  1687  made  a loom  which  en- 
abled one  to  make  easily  small  patterns. 
Bonchon  originated  the  idea  of  needles 
pressed  back  by  a cardboard  on  which 
was  traced  the  design. 

Falcon,  his  assistant,  increased  the 
number  of  needles  and  made  the  cards 
revolve  on  two  quadrangular  prism 
cylinders.  The  municipality  of  Lyons 
recognized  the  superiority  of  this  new 
loom  and  allowed  to  Falcon  a gratuity 
of  1,500  livres.  Genin  in  1749  received 
1,750  livres  for  having  invented  a loom 
on  which  one  could  weave  small  fancy 
stuffs  without  the  help  of  a draw-boy. 
Ponson  in  1766  invented  the  loom  for 
the  weaving  of  several  armures  at  one 
time.  Vezier  in  1798  made  still  further 
improvements.  Philip  de  LaSalle  in- 
vented a machine  for  reeding  designs, 
which  brought  about  a considerable  de- 
velopment in  the  composition  of 
fabrics.  He  invented  an  attach- 
ment by  the  aid  of  which  the 
draw-boy  was  able  to  do  all  his 
work  while  remaining  seated. 
Finally  he  created  the  flying 
shuttle. 

Jacquard’s  machine  was  an 
improvement  on  former  inven- 
tions, but  what  was  accom- 


Louis  XIII. 


125 


HENRI  II,  HENRI  IV  TO  LOUIS  XIII 

1500-1600  Group  VI  (R). 


LOUIS  XVI  CEILING  AND  BORDER  DESIGNS. 


1710.  Group  VIII  (U).  Louis  XIV. 


1670.  Group  VII  (S).  Louis  XIV. 


1710.  Group  VII  (S).  Louis  XIV. 


1 550-1650.  Group  VII  (P).  Late  Renaissance,  Henri  II 
Louis  XIII. 


LOUIS  XIII  AND 


LOUIS  XIV 


plished  by  Jacquard  about  1800  was  accomplished  in  a 
more  primitive  manner  by  Falcon  in  1728.  Hence  the 
tracing  of  the  age  of  a fabric  by  the  evidence  of 
Jacquard  mechanism  is  fallacious.  Contemporane- 
ously we  note  the  introduction  through  Italian 
channels  of  the  crystal  and  glass  chandeliers,  sconces 
in  the  shape  of  arms  fixed  to  the  wall,  the  first  hold- 
ing the  candle;  also  glass  mirrors  (invented  in  Italy, 
1507),  sometimes  framed  elaborately  in  gold  and  in 
ebony  or  appliques  of  copper  and  silver. 

This  mirror  was  used  in  conjunction  with  the 
bureau,  which  followed  the  introduction  of  the  cabinet. 
The  term  is  carelessly  used  at  present,  but  in  the  time 
of  Louis  XIII  the  bureau  was  a chest  set  upon  a table 
and  pushed  back  to  afford  a rest  for  the  hand  of  the 
writer.  About  1700  this  table  was  provided  with 
drawers  and  to-day  this  combination  of  drawers  and 
chests  we  call  a bureau. 

Good  wood  carvers  were  becoming  scarce.  They 


had  been  sup- 
planted by 
workers  in  mar- 
quetry and  mo- 
saic, after  the 
Italian  fashion, 
and  spiral  sup- 
ports were  gen- 
erously used, 
the  chisel  being 
employed  only 
on  the  tops  of 
posts  or  im- 
portant places. 
The  upholster- 
ing of  the  furni- 
ture was  heavy 
and  comfort- 
able and  fixed 


Above,  illustration  of  a ceiling  by  Sir 
Christopher  Wren,  showing  the  ex- 
quisite carving  of  Grinling  Gibbons. 

Below,  panel  ornamentation  fre- 
quently referred  to  as  Gibbons’ 
masterpiece. 


128 


1620.  Jacobean.  James  I.  England. 


1620.  Salon  at  Fontainebleau.  Louis  XIII. 


ENGLISH  AND  CONTEMPORARY  FRENCH 


The  pediment  in  the  middle  of  the  second  row  of  illustrations  shown  above  is  the  work  of  Inigo  Jones:  The  two  small 
pediments  of  the  bottom  row  are  attributed  to  Kent.  The  others  are  the  work  of  James  Gibb. 


to  the  structure.  The  room  was  draped  and  as  the 
woodwork  was  no  longer  beautifully  carved,  curtains 
and  fabrics  were  hung  in  profusion. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Seventeenth  Century 
France  greatly  prospered.  Damasks,  damascenes, 
fancy  velvets,  cloths  of  gold,  taffetas,  silk,  wool,  cotton 
and  other  fiber  mixtures,  poplins,  brocatelles,  dimities, 
fustians,  filatrices  and  feradines,  as  well  as  fabrics 
of  low  price  were  made,  and  Italy  soon  lost  her 
ascendency.  To  cap  the  climax  the  discovery  of  the 
passage  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (1579) 
turned  from  the  Mediterranean  the  trade  in  silks 
from  the  Eastern  part  of  Asia. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  and 


the  beginning  of  the  Seventeenth,  the  closing  of  the 
Renaissance,  we  find  in  fabric  designs  a great  many 
of  the  pure  Renaissance  types,  including  griffins, 
birds,  vases,  bouquets,  garlands,  branches  of  lea,ves 
and  fruits,  masks,  serpentine  meanderings,  birds  and 
hounds,  Oriental  motifs,  flowers,  sprays,  spots  and  cur- 
ly-cues.  Typical  of  the  Louis  XIII  is  the  Arabian  style, 
a survival  of  the  Arabian  popular  under  Francis  I, 
sometimes  called  Moresque  or  Arabesque,  As  early 
as  1540  books  of  patterns  were  issued  at  Lyons 
and  these  Arabesque  styles,  which  are  conspicuous 
again  in  the  Louis  XIII  period,  were  recommended 
as  elegant  and  refined. 


Louis  XIII. 


130 


Under  Louis  , XIII  s%  manufacture  encouraged.  Characteristic  design. 

Note  character  of  patterns. 

INTERIOR  AND  FABRICS  OF  LOUIS  XIII  PERIOD. 


Characteristic  furniture  leg  details  of  the  Louis  XIV  Period. 


LOUIS  XIV 


TH  E period  of  Louis  XIV  is  supposed  to  have 
begun  1643,  when  the  king  was  but  five  years 
old.  The  art  period  starts  properly  at  1667, 
when  the  Manufacture 
Royale  des  Meubles  de 
la  Couronne  was  estab- 
lished by  Colbert,  to 
promote  the  making  of 
tapestries,  jewelry,  fur- 
niture and  metal  work, 
just  as  the  Academy  of 
Painting  and  Sculpture 
had  encouraged  the 
more  dilettante  arts. 

The  Gobelin  factory, 
and  a little  later  the 
Beauvais  works,  were 
part  of  the  enterprise, 
and  French  art  may  be 
said  to  have  dated  from 
this  organization. 

Le  Brun,  chief 
court  painter  to  Louis 
XIV,  became  director 
of  the  Gobelin  factory 
and  gathered  about  him 
the  most  eminent  artists 
of  the  day,  Vander- 
meulen,  Mansart,  Hy- 
vart,  Monnoyer,  the 
two  Boullognes,  t h e 
Coypel  brothers,  the 
ebenists  Cucci,  Poitou 
and  the  tapestry  mak- 
ers Jans  and  son.  In 


1679  Jean  Marot  and  his  son  Daniel,  who  left  France 
for  Holland  and  England,  1685,  did  much  to  em- 
phasize and  popularize  the  Louis  XIV  type.  Jean 

le  P a u t r e and  his 
brother  Antoine  became 
authorities  in  woo  d 
work,  and  the  designs 
of  Jean  Berain  became 
also  a type. 

Mazarin,  himself  an 
Italian,  drew  many 
Italian  workmen  to 
France  and  naturally 
Italian  art  strongly  in- 
fluenced the  Louis  XIV 
style  which  closely  fol- 
lowed the  Renaissance. 
In  tapestry  work  par- 
ticularly we  find  pomp 
and  m u c h dignity, 
tableaux  of  classic 
“Victory  and 
the  spirit  of 
“Valor  and  Conquest,” 
the  “Purity  of  the  Pas- 
sions,” the  “Progress  of 
the  Arts  and  Sciences” — 
allegories  of  an  exalted 
nature. 

It  was  an  ambitious 
period,  stimulated  by 
the  enthusiasm  of  the 
Crown,  and  artists  held 
high  position  and  there 
was  great  incentive  to 


132 


LOUIS  XIV 


royal  favor.  The  art  of  the  Italian  Caffieri  was  gor- 
geous in  gold  and  bronze.  Andre  Charles  Boulle  or 
Boule  brought  the  arts  - of  the  inlayer  to  the  highest 
possible  degree.  (Called  also  Buhl  work.) 

Mignard’s  ceiling  paintings  were  superb.  The 
richest  velvets,  silks  and  Oriental  carpets  were  used. 
A great  deal  of  gold  stucco  was  employed  together 
with  bronze,  and  damasks  following  the  classic  models 
in  an  elaborate  spirit. 

Berain  gave  great  freedom  to  the  exercise  of 
Renaissance  form,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  contemporary  scenic  and  genre  details 
were  introduced,  including  Chinese.  Ceiling  work 
was  massive  or  dainty,  hand-painted,  wood  molded  or 
stuccoed.  Walls  were  covered  with  fabrics  or  deco- 
rated in  paint,  leather  or  wood. 

It  was  a period  of  luxury  in  the  use  of  superb 
beds  and  tapestries,  hand-painted  fabrics,  damasks, 
brocades  and  velvets,  rich  upholsterings,  curtains, 
bronzes,  mirrors,  clocks,  screens,  sideboards,  porce- 
lains and  consoles.  Huge  pier  glasses  of  great  height 
were  employed,  the  frames  carved  in  imitation  of 
palms.  Bronze  and  marble  were  combined  in  mantel- 
pieces. Marble-top  tables  held  superb  vases.  It  was 
the  period  of  Louis  the  Great,  le  grand  monarque, 


and  the  decorations  reflected  that  spirit.  It  was  an 
age  of  conquest  and  naturally  an  age  of  absorption 
and  adaptation. 

In  1659  France  received  German  and  Flemish 
territory.  In  1667  was  the  first  war  of  conquest  on 
account  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  Then  followed 
wars  of  conquest  against  Holland  and  the  acquisition 
of  territory.  All  this  had  its  influence  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  decorations.  The  style  was  classic  and 
the  Roman  acanthus  leaf  was  conspicuous  until  the 
Louis  XV  period  when  the  rock  and  shell  and  even 
the  stalactite  forms  were  employed. 

Wall  decorations  were  usually  of  historical  or 
biblical  or  legendary  character. 

Companies  were  established  to  trade  with  the 
East  and  West  Indies  in  competition  with  the  Dutch. 
The  faqade  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  commenced  by 
Francis  I,  was  now  finished.  All  France  was 
adorned  with  parks  and  public  buildings  and  wall 
panels  and  fabrics  frequently  presented  scenic  and 
architectural  designs.  The  French  Academy  was 
established.  It  was  the  age  of  Corneille,  Racine, 
Moliere  and  La  Fontaine. 

It  has  been  said  that  Louise  de  la  Valliere  and 


Ceiling  and  panels  by  Inigo  Jones.  English  contemporary  of  Early  Louis  XIV. 


133 


LOUIS  XIV 


From  an  old  etching. 


LOUIS  XIV 


Madame  de  Maintenon  influenced  the  arts  of  Louis 
XIV.  On  the  contrary,  the  arts  were  stimulated  by 

the  world  force  of 


and  European  floriculture 
became  for  the  first  time  an 
inspiration  to  the  fabric  de- 


Daniel  Marot,  Louis  XIV. 


Berain,  Louis  XIV. 


137 


ARTISTS  AND  ARCHITECTS. 


EBENISTES  AND 
INLAYERS. 


.> 


«s  p, 
c ^ o 

O 

<D  , ^ 


'5  ^ ir 

u"“ 

< & 

CO 

^ OS 

<Ph 

£ 

CJ 


& 

o 

J 


Aman. 

Du  Cerceau,  Jacques  An- 
drouet. 

Goujon,  Jean. 

Hainofer,  Philippe. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Seralio 
and  Cellini  (Italians)  influ- 
enced this  period.  » 
Martellange. 

Sambin,  Hugues. 

Seibecq  Francisque,  called 
De  Carpi. 

Stabre,  Laurent. 

Bosse,  Abraham. 

De  Brosse,  Salomon. 

La  Sueur,  Eustache. 

Le-Brun,  Charles. 

Le  Mercier,  Jacques. 

Lorrain,  Claude. 

Pouissin,  Nicholas. 

Primaticcio. 

Villacerf. 

Vouet,  Simon. 


CARVERS  AND 
BRONZE  WORKERS. 

Le  Pot,  Jean.  Bachelier,  Nicholas. 

Baumgartner,  Ulrich 
Breughels. 

De  Vos. 

De  Vriendts,  Floris. 
Francks,  the. 


* Caffieri. 

* Cucci,  Dominico. 


Barbet,  I. 

Bordoni,  Francesco. 
Branchi. 

Giacetti,  Luigi. 

Golle,  Peter, 

Migliorini,  Fernando  and 
ratio. 


m w 

i-h  W 
U>.  J 


^ P-.  , 

XfQ' 

(A  £ 

5 < 

o fcd 


Beilin. 

Berain,  Claude. 

Boullognes,  Tlie. 

Coypel,  Antoine  and  Noel. 
D’Avilier,  J. 

De  Espouy. 

Francart 

Hedouin. 

Hongre,  Louis  le. 

Le  Brun,  Manager  Gobelins, 
1660. 


Le  Pautre,  Jean  and  Pierre. 
Loir,  Nicholas. 

Mansart. 

Marot,  Antoine. 

Marot,  Jean  and  Son  Daniel. 
Mignard,  Paul  (Manager 
Gobelins,  1690). 

Monnoyer. 

Rousselet. 

Van  der  Meulen. 

Yvart. 


Auguier. 

Baronniere. 

* Caffieri,  Jacques. 
Coysevox. 

* Cucci. 
Lespagnandel. 
Tuby. 


Armandi 

Boule. 

Cucci. 

Denis,  Louis. 

Oppenordt. 

Percheron. 

Poitou. 

Sommord. 


Albadier,  Jacques. 
Audran. 

Blondel,  J.  I7. 

Boucher. 

Briseux. 

Chamblin. 

Cotelle. 

Dagley  (Le  Sieur). 
Dantin. 

De  Cotte,  Jules  Robert. 
De  Cuvillcs. 

De  La  Salle,  Philip. 
Eissen,  Ch. 

Fragonard. 

Germain. 

Gillot. 

Gravelotte. 

Huet. 

Jouv. 

Lancret,  Nicholas. 


Lathuile,  J.  P. 
Leclerc,  Sebastian. 
Le  Moyne,  Frangois. 
Le  Prince. 

Leroux,  J.  B. 

Martin,  J.  A. 

Meil,  J.  W. 
Meissonnier. 

Natoire,  Joseph. 
Nilson,  J.  E. 
Oberkampf. 

Oudry,  Jean  Baptiste 
Patte,  Pierre. 

Pineau. 

Revel. 

Rubo. 

Slodtz. 

Tessier. 

Watteau. 


rxj 


Babel,  P.  E. 
Boffrand. 

Bouchardon,  Edme. 
Caffieri,  Jacques. 
Cressent,  Charles. 
Duplessis. 

Guibal. 

Hervieux. 

Lenroyne,  M. 

Pigole. 

Pineau,  Nic. 

Sally. 

Winant. 


Arnoult. 

Bernard. 

Boudin,  L. 

Dautriche,  Jacques. 

De  Lorme. 

Denizot,  Pierre.- 
Dubois. 

Garnile,  Pierre. 
Germain. 

Gillot. 

Joubert. 

Leatz,  I.  P. 

L’Avasseur. 

Loriot. 

Mignon. 

Oeben,  Jean  Frangois. 
Pillement. 

Riesener,  Jean  Henri. 
Sulpice. 


ro 

Os 

Berthault. 

Lagrenee. 

Bardin. 

Beneman,  Guillaume. 

Cochin,  Chas.  Nic. 

* Lalonde. 

Falconet. 

Bergeman. 

Coysevox. 

Le  Doux. 

* Gouthiere. 

Bertrand. 

* David,  Jacques  Louis. 

Leleu,  Jean  Frangois. 

Haure. 

Birkle. 

r>* 

De  La  Fosse,  Chas. 

Leonard. 

Martin. 

Blucheidner. 

Desprez. 

Moreau,  J.  M.  (Le  Jeune). 

Pajou. 

Carlin,  Martin. 

> 

De  Wailley,  Ch. 

* Normond,  Chas.  Pierre  Jo- 

*  Roentgen. 

Degault. 

X! 

Drud’hon. 

seph. 

* Thomire. 

Feuerstein. 

(n 

p 

Dugourc,  Jean  Denis. 

* Fontaine,  Pierre  Frangois. 

* Percier. 

* Riesener. 

Frost. 

Girard. 

Fragonard. 

Goudouin,  Jacques. 

* Rousseau,  Jean  Simon  de. 
Salembier. 

* Jacob  (Bros). 
Joubert. 

Os  . 

. OS  Tf 

* Gouthiere. 

Saunier,  Claude  Chas. 

Leleu,  J.  Frangois. 

<-*  , -/I 

Greune,  J.  B. 

Soufflot. 

Levasseur. 

T*  in  i 

Jouy. 

Vanloo. 

Montigny. 

French  Transit 
Empire  Directorate,  179. 
804-1814.  Consulate,  1799 

/ 

Linereux. 

Pasquier. 

Richter,  Chas. 
Roentgen. 

Saunier. 

Schmitz,  Peter. 
Schneider,  Gaspard. 
Schwerdfeger. 

Stokel,  Joseph. 
Weisweiler. 

Desmalter,  Jacob. 

The  asterisks  indicate  names  of  men  who  became  famous  in  the  Empire  period. 


'y  h e s e illustrations 
present  very  clear- 
ly the  serious,  classic 
tendencies  of  the  Louis 
XIV  period,  as  distin- 
guished from  the 
whimsical,  exagger- 
ated and  capricious 
character  of  Louis  XV. 

The  Regency  was 
the  Transition  Period 
between  late  Louis 
XIV  and  early  Louis 
XV.  At  this  time  the 
classicism  observed 
and  the  Renaissance 
principles  followed  by 
Louis  XIV  gave  way 
to  a predisposition  to 
modernize,  a n cl  the 
nymphs  and  satyrs  as- 
sumed the  dress  of  the 
day,  a little  low  in  the 
neck  and  a little  short 
in  the  skirt,  but  never- 
theless modernized. 

The  heroics  of  an- 
cient Rome  and  Pom- 
peii were  succeeded 
by  a comedy  spirit, 


winged  horses  and  fa- 
bled lions  disappeared 
and  monkeys,  parrots, 
cats  and  dogs  and 
farmyard  creatures 
took  their  place. 

Finally,  t h e artists 
Watteau,  Boucher, 
Lancret  and  Bouchar- 
don  abandoned  alto- 
gether the  legendary, 
historical  and  Biblical 
illustrations,  scenes 
which  found  expres- 
sion in  tapestries,  ceil- 
ing and  wall  decora- 
tions, and  cultivated 
a modern  spirit  depict- 
ing the  life  of  the 
people  ; idealized,  to  be 
sure,  but  of  a contem- 
porary character ; so- 
cial festivities,  recrea- 
t i o n s , occupations, 
were  the  subjects  treat- 
ed, surrounded  by  a 
decorative  treatment 
that  developed  finally 
into  the  Rococo. 


sras&gK 


si 


Fig.  4.  Group  VIII.  Gros  de  Tours 
1700.  Sky-blue  ground,  flowers,  fruits 
and  leaves  in  blending  shades  broche. 
Design  of  Revel,  the  pupil  of  Lebrun. 
1700. 


Fig.  6.  Louis  XVI.  Fancy  fabric  manu- 
factured by  Philip  de  la  Salle.  Medal- 
lion type.  Ground  of  the  medallion  in 
yellow  satin.  The  fancy  design  is  in 
part  broche. 


Fig.  2.  Group  VII.  Brocatelle.  Period 
of  Louis  XIII.  The  design  is  executed 
in  crimson  on  a yellow  ground. 


THE  FABRICS  OF  THE  XVI  AND  XVII 

CENTURIES 


FRENCH  manufacturers  of  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury were  equipped  to  produce  exceedingly 
rich  stuffs ; foliage  velvets  in  imitation  of  the 
Venetian  broche  cut  velvets,  crepes,  etamines,  mixed 
cottons,  Levantines,  plushes,  fancy  velvets,  fabrics 
with  three  and  five  colors  in  Turkish,  Milanese, 
Genoese  and  Venetian  fashions.  At  the  end  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century  fewer  metallic- 
threads  were  used  in  weaving  and 
the  thick,  heavy  cloths  of  gold  had 
fallen  into  disfavor. 

Embroidery  at  the  same  time 
had  done  marvelously  well.  The 
refining  and  spinning  of  gold  had 
been  very  successful  in  France, 
and  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe 
since  the  Fifteenth  Century  the  art 
of  embroidering  official  robes  and 
ecclesiastical  ornaments  had  devel- 
oped considerably. 

Oriental  foliation  and  the  vase 
which  had  for  a long  time  served 
both  before  and  during  the  Ren- 
aissance in  the  decoration  of  fab- 
rics are  now  revived ; one  finds  this 
combination  in  Figure  4,  which 
shows  a cut  velvet  on  a gold 
ground.  The  warp  threads  of  the 


Fig.  1.  Group  VI  (B).  Dolphin  design. 
Executed  under  Henry  IV.  1610. 


velvets  which  make  the  fancy  effects  are  crimson.  It 
followed  the  Chinese  taste  of  the  period.  (See  page 
144.)  At  the  end  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  designs 
were  of  small  dimensions — detached  floral  pieces, 
palms  and  fleurs-de-lis.  T hey  corresponded  with  the 
less  ample  form  of  the  garment.  We  reproduce 
(Figure  1)  the  sketch  of  a fancy  fabric  with  gold 
ground,  date  1610.  The  design  is 
Gros  de  Tours,  raised  on  a gold 
ground  in  a deep  green  shade. 
Many  striped  fabrics  are  noted  at 
this  period. 

Under  Louis  XIII  and  Louis 
XIV,  1610-1700,  the  composition 
of  fabrics  took  on  a grandiose 
style.  Brocatelle  (Figure  2)  is  a 
beautiful  specimen,  Louis  XIII; 
red  in  color  composes  the  body  of 
the  fabric,  and  a yellow  silk  tram 
thread  is  intertwined  in  a serge 
weave  in  such  a manner  as  to  give 
a brilliant  ground ; the  design  is 
raised  and  is  worked  out  in  a satin 
weave  with  the  crimson  warp 
threads. 

This  fabric  may  be  assigned 
to  the  latter  years  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century. 


140 


Fig.  5.  Group  VIII  (U).  Taffeta 

broche,  about  1740,  Louis  XV.  Rose- 

colored  ground  with  lace  effect  in 

white.  Flowers  in  gilt. 


Fig.  8.  Group  VIII  (U).  About  1750, 
Louis  XV.  Pheasant  design.  Fancy 
fabric  manufactured  by  Philip  de  la  Salle. 
From  the  Lyons  Industrial  Museum  of 
Design. 


Fig.  7.  Group  VIII  (U).  Partridge 
design.  About  1750,  Louis  XV.  Fancy 
fabric  manufactured  by  Philip  de  la  Salle. 
From  the  Lyons  Industrial  Museum  of 
Design. 


The  great  vogue  of  gardens  under  Louis  XIV 
brought  about  the  adoption  of  architectural  design — 
green  arbors,  trees  in  full  leaf,  bouquets,  etc.  Revel, 
the  painter,  a pupil  of  Lebrun,  established  himself  in 
Lyons  at  the  beginning  of  the  Eighteenth  Century, 
and  gave  a great  impulse  to  this  kind  of  ornamenta- 
tion (Figure  4). 

Under  Louis  XV  rocks  and  shells  entered  into 
the  ornamentation  of  fabrics  in 
the  Eighteenth  Century.  Fabrics 
reflected  all  the  fantasies  ol 
fashion.  One  sees  the  feathers 
which  women  had  placed  in  the 
coiffures,  ribbons,  knots,  pastoral 
attributes,  crooks,  baskets,  etc., 
finely  garlanded,  also  Chinese  and 
Japanese- — whimsicalities. 

Under  Louis  XVI  the  poetic- 
spirit  of  the  designers  was  inex- 
haustible and  it  is  impossible  here 
to  indicate  the  innumerable  paths 
in  which  it  was  successfully  en- 
gaged under  the  impulse  of 
the  passing  caprices  of  fashion. 

Decorative  art  was  admirably 
comprehended  and  taste  in  com- 
position was  exquisite. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  num- 
erous improvements  in  the  art  of 
weaving  made  by  Philip  de  la 


Salle.  In  1775  the  Academy  of  Science  commended 
his  work  in  engrossed  eulogies  and  presented  him 
with  a gold  medal  in  1783.  An  entire  glass  case  in 
the  Industrial  Museum  of  Lyons  is  reserved  for  this 
remarkable  manufacturer.  It  includes  all  types  of 
composition,  arabesques,  foliage,  flowers,  figures, 
trophies,  allegories,  landscapes,  country  scenes  and 
Chinese  ornaments. 


141 


1643-1715.  LOUIS  XIV. 


A X 


1643-1715.  LOUIS  XIV. 


LOUIS  XV 

1715-1774. 


SELDOM  in  the  history  of  the  world  has  there 
been  greater  exuberance  of  inflated  wealth 
than  that  which  prevailed  during  the  early 
period  of  Louis  XV.  The  first  eight  years  constituted 
the  Regency ; medley  of  the  mythological  classic  and 
modern ; all  parade  and  ostentation. 

The  austere,  the  serious  and  the  heroic  of  Louis 
XIV  became  full  of  abandon,  frivolity  and  extrava- 
gance. The  monkey  supplanted  the  Renaissance 
masque,  and  the  Chinese  utterly  routed  Pompeiian  bal- 
ance. 

Then  came  another  phase,  the  Rococo,  an  im- 
pressionistic form  which,  following  in  some  degree  the 
curved  outlines  of  the  late  Louis  XIV,  displaced  the 
acanthus  floral  motifs  and  substituted  massings  of 
rock  and  shell  and  stalactite  shapes,  and  the  independ- 
ence of  execution,  already  developed  in  the  Baroque. 

Carvers  presented  a flower  the  size  of  a man’s 
head  and  beside  it  a pheasant  no  bigger  than  a canary. 
Occasionally  the  Louis  XV  period  showed  phases 
rational  and  charming,  but  the  Regency  and  the  Rococo 
dominated  the  reign. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  maker  of  furniture  was 
Charles  Cressent,  who  ranked  with  Boulle.  Other 
artists  were  Caffieri,  Duplessis,  Riesener,  Le  Roux, 


Oudry,  Briseux,  Pineau,  de  Cuvilles,  Gravelot, 
Boucher,  Blondel,  Babel,  Germain  and  Joubert. 

Oeben  was  a pupil  of  Boulle  and  in  great  favor 
with  Madame  Pompadour.  J.  Henri  Riesener  was  his 
foreman. 

About  1720  Louis  XV  dispatched  an  embassy  to 
the  Emperor  of  China  with  goods  of  rare  value, 
charged  with  a commission  to  encourage  the  opening 
of  more  extensive  trade  relations.  The  emperor  was 
cordial  in  his  reception  of  the  king’s  messengers,  and 
returned  magnificent  gifts  lavishly  decorated.  This 
incident  rendered  the  Chinese  style  fashionable  in  the 
upper  circles  of  France,  and  for  some  time  thereafter 
Chinese  vases  appeared  in  French  textile  designs 
juxtaposed  to  dragons,  birds,  human  figures,  pagodas 
and  bits  of  scenery.  A great  amount  of  lacquer  work 
was  imported  and  the  lacquers  thus  introduced  were 
soon  copied,  the  Vernis-Martin  becoming  especially 
famous.  Pronounced  stripes  were  affected  as  crea- 
tions of  Madame  Pompadour. 

' The  word  apartment  at  this  time  meant  a com- 
plete suite  of  living-rooms : vestibule,  first  and  second 
ante-chambers  (for  the  servants  and  attendants,  some- 
times used  as  a dining-room),  principal  chamber  salon 


144 


LOUIS  XV 


and  company-room  or  reception-room,  bedroom,  sev- 
eral studies  and  wardrobe-room. 

Each  room  bad  its  own  special  decoration  and 
coloring.  The  bedroom  was  usually  hung  with  the 
same  materials  as  the  bed.  Ceremonious  visitors  were 
received  here.  The  ceiling  was  painted  and  pictures 
and  mirrors  wrought  into  it.  White  and  gold  was  a 
favorite  composition,  but  bronzes  and  colors  and  ma- 


hoganies and  all  kinds  of  woods  were  also  used.  The 
room  was  usually  longer  than  wide  so  that  after  the 
bed  and  side  furniture  were  placed  the  balance  of  the 
room  would  be  almost  square.  A niche  or  alcove  was 
often  provided  to  receive  the  bed.  The  walls  were 
done  often  in  hand-painted  scenes,  Chinese  lacquered. 
Thick-pile  French  carpets  or  Oriental  carpets  cov- 
ered the  floors.  Draperies  were  profusely  used  and 


LOUIS  XV 


Watteau’s  designs  became  exceedingly  popular.  His 
ladies  were  depicted  in  fashionable  attire  and  dainty 
landscape  scenes  were  presented.  Romance  and  fash- 
ion were  merged.  His  subjects  were  “The  Lady  in 
the  Sleigh,”  “The  Lady  in  the  Swing,”  “The  Courtier 


and  the  Sheepherdess,”  “Frolic,”  “Folly,”  “ 1 he  Danc- 
ing Girl.”  The  nude  was  liberally  presented  in  the 
great  works  of  Boucher,  Babel,  Natoire,  Fragonard 
and  Bouchardon. 

In  1692  there  was  record  of  three  factories  in 
Paris  making  “lacquer  work  and  furniture  in  the  Chi- 
nese style again  under  Louis  XIV,  Chinese  lacquers 


were  introduced  into  his  palace  at  Versailles  by  Louis 
l’Hongre.  Thus  we  find  that  before  Louis  XV,  the 
Chinese  tendency  was  strong.  Robert  Martin,  born 
1706,  as  early  as  1733  became  known  as  vernisseur  du 
roi  Louis  XV.  A brother  was  engaged  in  making 


relief  work  in  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  styles  and 
two  sons  also  followed  the  manufacture  of  lacquers. 
In  1744  the  establishment  of  the  Martin  works,  which 
in  1748  became  a Royal  Manufactory,  is  accredited  to 
a Martin,  born  1726,  probably  Simon  Etienne 
Martin  Jr.,  doubtless  a nephew  of  Robert,  and  the 
work  of  the  family  was  here  concentrated.  Vernis- 


M7 


Louis  XV  furniture  and  details. 


LOUIS  XV 


Martin,  or  Martin  varnish,  soon  became  the  finish  for 
Louis  XV  furniture  and  hundreds  of  people  were  en- 
gaged in  making  lacquers  in  the  Martin  style : red, 
brown,  gold,  speckled  bronze,  even  black,  and  the 
walls  of  the  daintiest  boudoirs  were  finished  in  this 
composition. 

Ornamental  bronzes  also  were  much  in  evidence. 
Corners  of  furniture  pieces  were  ornamented  in 
bronze;  panels  were  decorated  in  great  profusion,  and 
upon  all  sides  we  note  exquisite  mantel  ornaments, 
clocks,  vases,  candelabra  and  sconces.  Some  furni- 
ture was  almost  completely  covered  with  bronze  work 
and  wood  carving  was  abandoned  for  this  form  of 
decoration.  Charles  Cressent,  famous  in  this  period, 
studied  the  Boulle  methods,  and  we  have  in  his  work 
not  only  bronze  or  ormolu  decorations,  but  tortoise- 
shell and  marquetrie  of  the  finest  character.  (See 
table  of  Intarsia.)  Probably  the  Rococo  spirit  was 
carried  to  its  best  expression  by  Messonnier,  who 
brought  with  him  frojn  Italy  the  decadent  baroque 
and  idealized  it.  He  was  designer  to  Louis  XV  and 
to  the  royal  houses  of  Germany,  Portugal  and  Poland. 
His  interpretation  of  what  was  finally  known  as  the 


Rococo,  style  became  fashionable  about  the  year  1730. 

Walls  and  ceilings  were  decorated  profusely  with 
female  faces  and  forms,  costumed  and  in  the  nude,  by 
Boucher,  Watteau,  Huet,  le  Prince,  Gravelot  and 
Bouchardon.  Glass  chandeliers  were  of  the  most  gor- 
geous character.  Huge  mirrors  were  used  not  only 
for  wall  panels  but  for  ceilings,  cut  up  and  surrounded 
by  moldings  and  juxtaposed  to  painted  scenes  or  dec- 
orations. Oudry’s  famous  cartoons,  illustrating  the 
La  Fontaine  fables,  were  executed  about  this  time  in 
Beauvais  tapestry,  and  some  of  the  finest  work  of  the 
Gobelins  was  undertaken,  but  the  nudities  of  Boucher 
and  the  frivolities  of  Watteau  were  the  fashion,  and 
gave  lasting  imprint  to  the  Louis  XV  period. 

During  the  late  years  of  Louis  XV,  and  while 
the  wildest  extravagances  were  being  encouraged  by 
him,  his  favorite,  Du  Barry,  and  her  satellites,  his 
grandson  was  exploring  the  sciences. 

The  Dauphiness  was  a picture  of  refinement  amid 
ribaldry,  culture  amid  chicanery,  but  she  held  aloof 
from  contamination,  and  the  style  known  later  as  the 
Louis  XVI  was  a style  which  reflected  Marie  An- 
toinette’s personality. 


150 


A MANTEL  PLACE  AT  VERSAILLES.  LOUIS  XV. 


Boudoir  of  Marie  Antoinette;  Louis  XVI — Transition. 


LOUIS  XVI 

1774-1793. 


HERCULANEUM,  for  centuries  buried  beneath 
the  ashes  of  Vesuvius,  was  discovered  about 
1709.  By  1748  Pompeii  also  had  been  dis- 
covered and  excavations  were  successfully  undertaken 
in  both  cities. 

The  antiquities 
brought  to  light  aroused 
great  enthusiasm  among 
French  artists  and  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  reign  of 
Louis  XV  this  purely 
classic  feeling,  this  restor- 
ation of  pure  lines,  Pom- 
peiian lines,  was  strongly 
in  evidence. 

In  the  closing  years 
of  Louis  XV’s  regime,  the 
style  had  fully  developed, 
and  it  continued  u n d e r 
Louis  XVI,  to  which 
period  its  development  is 
popularly  attributed. 

The  Louis  XVI  style 
was  a reversion  to  the 
early  classic.  It  came  back 
to  the  straight  legs  of  the 
early  Louis  XIV,  but  fol- 
lowed the  models  of  the 


architectural  columns,  rounded,  but  smaller  at  the  base 
or  foot  instead  of  smaller  at  the  top.  No  longer  did 
they  use  curved  lines,  the  S shapes  or  the  exaggerated 
curves  in  the  acanthus  forms.  There  was  a well-de- 
fined effort  to  purify  dec- 
oration, which  had  run  the 
limits  of  extravagance. 
Moreover,  the  petit  salon 
and  boudoir  had  become 
fashionable,  hence  a de- 
mand for  reduced  propor- 
tions,  daintier  figures, 
smaller  furniture.  The 
tastes  of  Marie  Antoinette 
were  simple  and  her  judg- 
ment and  patronage  stim- 
u 1 a t e d the  new  styles, 
which  following  the  lines 
of  least  resistance, 
adopted  the  classicism  dis- 
played in  the  Restoration 
work  at  Pompeii.  So 
strong  did  this  feeling  be- 
come that  notwithstanding 
the  fanatical  hatred  and 
destructiveness  which  fol- 
lowed in  the  path  of  the 
Revolution,  the  style  con- 


Costume  and  Furniture  of  the  Louis  XVI  period. 


DETAILS. 


LOUIS 


X V I 


FURNITURE 


LOUIS  XVI 


LOUIS  XVI 


tinued  through  the  Transition  or  Directoire  and  into 
the  period  of  the  Empire.  We  find  the  same  spirit  in 
the  English  styles  of  the  Brothers  Adam,  Hepplewhite 
and  Sheraton,  modified  but  undisguised.  Pagan  deities, 
masks  and  caryatides  were  replaced  by  suggestions  of 
pastoral  simplicity : flowers,  ribbons,  festoons  and  the 
depiction  of  peasant  life,  a little  unreal  in  the  diminu- 
tive waist  and  high-heeled  shoes  and  coiffures  of  the 
shepherdesses,  but  dainty  and  charming.  Chinese  lac- 
quers were  much  in  vogue  and  Chinese  pictorial  and 
scenic  designs. 

De  la  Londe  published  thirteen  books  of  design 
during  the  Louis  XVI  period  which  he  called  “The 
Classic  Taste.”  His  work  showed  a fondness  for  the 
fluted  leg  laced  with  ribbon.  He  utilized  the  bow 
and  quiver,  the  urn,  lyre,  garland,  burning  torch  and 
the  ribbon  in  many  forms.  Le  Prince  was  particularly 
fond  of  pastoral  accessories,  groups  of  big  pots,  shep- 
herd’s crooks,  spades,  trowels,  bird  cages,  thrown  to- 
gether in  bunches  with  garlands  and  ribbons.  Some- 
times the  oval  frames  of  his  chairs  are  supplemented 
by  a quiver  of  arrows  or  a garland  of  roses  wherein 
doves  are  nestled. 

Salembier’s  books  are  devoted  to  the  description 
of  ornamental  trailing  foliage,  the  arabesque,  the  acan- 
thus, and  the  thistle  leaf.  Although  these  are  motifs 
which  appeared  for  a hundred  years  previously  they 
are  treated  now  in  a more  delicate  fashion.  And  this 
characteristic  marks  the  style  of  the  whole  period — 


delicacy,  minuteness,  grace.  Vases  were  reproduced 
after  the  fashion  of  the  vases  discovered  in  the  restor- 
ation, all  Greek  or  Early  Roman  and  all  slender  and 
graceful. 

In  textiles  we  find  ribbons  and  stripes  inter- 
mingled with  flowers,  winding  ribbons  and  feathers, 
medallions,  columns,  lyres,  and  occasionally  heads  of 
Minerva  or  other  classic  subjects;  and  ever  conspicu- 
ous was  the  stripe.  Indeed  Mercier  in  1788  wrote, 
“Everybody  in  the  King’s  cabinet  looks  like  a zebra.” 
To  be  sure  Madame  Pompadour  had  already  set  the 
fashion  for  stripes,  but  Marie  Antoinette  sprinkled 
her  stripes  with  flowers  and  interwove  them  with 
ornaments.  It  is  a singular  fact  that  while  the  Ger- 
mans did  little  for  their  own  country  they  established 
through  Riesener  and  Roentgen  the  fame  of  Louis 
XVI  furniture.  Riesener  was  particularly  happy  in 
his  marquetry,  introducing  often  painted  porcelain, 
chiselled  copper  and  Sevres  plaques.  Roentgen’s  mar- 
quetry also  was  full  of  the  most  minute  shadings  and 
he  together  with  a number  of  other  noted  cabinet- 
makers followed  the  Boule  (Boulle)  style,  and  also 
utilized  plaques  and  china. 

At  this  period  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  find  the 
dividing  line  between  the  beds  and  sofas.  Frequently 
the  head  and  footboards  were  of  equal  height  and 
exactly  alike.  The  canopy  was  erected  at  the  side  in- 
stead of  the  head  of  the  structure.  They  were  some- 
times upholstered,  sometimes  lacquered,  frequently 


Louis  XV  Terminals. 


LOUIS  XVI 


gilded  or  all  white  and  paneled  with  cane  or  left  in 
natural  wood,  ornamented  with  bronze,  gilt  or  per- 
haps ormolu. 

Muslins,  prints  and  silks  were  profusely  used 
for  curtains,  trimmed  with  cords  and  tassels.  The 
beds  were  usually  curtained.  Cornices  were  used 
gilded  and  lacquered  or.  white  and  gold.  The  com- 
mode became  popular  and  was  often  made  of  ma- 
hogany or  amaranth  wood.  The  console  or  pier  table 
held  its  place,  but  was  composed  of  straight  lines, 


with  fluted  legs,  tapered.  In  the  boudoir  we  find  the 
Chinese  lacquer  as  well  as  the  Vernis-Martin.  Flower 
tables  were  popular,  writing  tables,  work  tables,  card 
tables,  and  in  this  period  was  introduced  also  the 
extension  table.  Dining-room  chairs  frequently  had 
cane  backs  or  were  covered  with  material  to  match 
the  walls. 

Low  ottomans  were  introduced,  and  while  all 
kinds  of  carpets  were  utilized  Moquettes  were  the 
most  popular. 


1 

1 : 

; | 

1 !: 

j ' 

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fi  i!  ii 

f ji 
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1 

it  ;!  it 

i ii  ii 

J 

1!  ii  i! 

!f 

mm 

si 

ft  jg|g§5 

¥ 

gl 

iglf 

ip  1 4 

35 

fit 

157 


Louis  XVI  interior. 


Louis  XVI,  heavy  and  formal. 


APARTMENT  OF  MARIE  ANTOINETTE,  FONTAINEBLEAU 


THRONE  ROOM,  APARTMENTS  OF  NAPOLEON  I,  AT  FONTAINEBLEAU. 


TRANSITION  PERIOD. 


Showing  the  detached  as  distinguished  from  the  connected  classic  compositions  of  the  Directoire  and  Adam  work. 


TRANSITION  — DI  R ECTO  I RE— EM  PI  RE 


Following  Louis  XVI,  the  Revolutionary  Period,  1793-1795.  Directorate,  1795T799. 


Consulate,  1799-1804. 


Empire,  1804-1814. 


trench  Directoire. 


THE  period  immediately  be- 
fore and  after  the  Transition 
French  was  inspired  by  a 
common  enthusiasm,  the  French 
and  English  developing  the  feeling 
contemporaneously.  The  English 
cabinetmakers,  with  the  exception 
of  Chippendale,  who  af- 
fected in  many  instances 
the  Rococo  spirit  applied 
to  Dutch  structural 'lines, 
were  especially  active  in 
this  new  classic  school. 

In  France 
David  was  the 
genius  whose  taste 
prevailed  at  the 
close  of  the  Louis 
XVI  period, 
the  political  atmos- 


lutionary,  from  1793  to  1795  ; then  what  is  known  as 
the  Directoire,  1795  to  1804.  This  period,  properly 
called  the  Transition,  carried  the  delicate  Pompeiian 
classicism  of  late  Louis  XVI  into  the  more  masculine 
type  of  the  Empire. 

It  was  a period  that  frowned  upon  all  that  was 
of  royal  suggestion,  and  designers  and  decorators  en- 
deavored to  procure  a style  essentially  new.  The 
Transition  period  was  largely  Roman;  but  with  Na- 


Coming  at  this  time,  when 
phere  was  unfavorable  to  the  presentation  of  the  styles 
of  Louis  XVI,  David  found  ready  acceptance  for 
his  rendition  of  the  classic  revival.  He  had  studied 
in  Rome,  where  also  the  brothers  Adamof  Lfcglaml 
had  spent  much  of  their  early  liy^s  and  naturally  were 
interested  in  the  ' ' 

Thus  the  development  which  followed  Louis  XVI  in 
France,  as  well  as  conlernp 
land.^Wks  saturated  with  the  Italian 

apt -was  Ponipeu^^aealized. 

Following  the  Louis  XVI  period  came  the  Revo 

i$x 


Empire. 


Empire. 


poleon  we  had  not  only  the  inspirations  of  Italy  but 
Egypt.  In  woodwork  there  was  little  or  no  carving. 
The  decorative  motifs  were  classic  appliques  on  mas- 
sive frames;  the  wreath  and  laurel  branch,  the  torch, 
Napoleonic  bee  and  crown  became  conspicuous  ; winged 
figures  were  popular  as  emblematic  of  liberty ; heads 
of  helmeted  warriors,  trophies  of  lances  surmounted 
by  the  Phrygian  cap  were  significant  details. 

After  the 
Italian  and 
Egyptian  wars 
the  French 
adopted  boldly 
all  that  was  sig- 
nificant of  con- 
quest. Occasion- 
ally we  find  the 
sphinx  carved 
into  the  arms  of 
the  chairs,  a re- 
minder of  the 
French  expedi- 
tion in  Egypt. 

The  furni- 
ture was  of  ma- 
hogany, rose- 
wood and  ebony, 
with  brass 
mountings. 

Sometimes 
the  wood  was  in- 
laid.  Vases 
found  in  tombs 
were  introduced 
and  the  pan- 
ther’s muzzle 
and  claw  and 
other  chimerical 
devices  were  in- 
troduced. 

In  some 
cases  Egyptian 
and  Roman  ex- 
a m p 1 e s were 
copied  without 
alteration. 

It  was  a 
style  that  was 


massive,  ponderous  and  ostentatious,  and  may  be 
broadly  designated  as  modern  classic. 

Examples  of  ceremonial  work  are  apt  to  be  pomp- 
ous, but  private  work  along  the  Empire  lines  was  usu- 
ally no  more  afifected  by  what  might  be  called  national 
motifs  than  American  home  decoration  is  influenced 
to-day  by  the  star-spangled  banner  or  the  spreading 
eagle.  While  it  is  true  the  flambeau  and  wreath  are 

characteristic  of 
the  Empire 
epoch,  their  ab- 
sence is  not  in- 
consistent with 
pure  Empire. 

Furniture 
ornament  gilded 
or  made  of  cast 
brass  is  not  in  it- 
self a positive  in- 
dication of  the 
Empire  period, 
but  classic  forms 
in  metal  orna- 
mentation denote 
Empire. 

The  spirit 
of  the  Empire 
was  influenced 
by  a revival  of 
the  more  digni- 
fied and  pomp- 
ous characteris- 
tics of  Roman 
ornament,  a n d 
its  detection  de- 
pends  on  the 
stately  assemb- 
ling of  various 
decorative  units 
in  orderly  and 
oft-  repeated 
forms  as  distin- 
g u i s h e d f rom 
the  more  con- 
nected and  elab- 
orate ensemble 
effects  of  the 
Directoire  style. 


Empire.  Napoleon’s  room  in  the  Grand  Trianon. 


163 


164 


EMPIRE 


Examples  of  exquisitely-colored  floral  motifs,  Indian. 


PRINTED  FABR 

WHEN  one  thinks  of  the  steam-driven  me- 
chanically engraved  cylinders  of  the  mod- 
ern print  factories,  it  seems  incredible  that 
so  much  could  have  been  achieved  by  the  primitive 
methods  of  the  Persian  and  Indian  printers,  who 
in  the  late  Seventeenth  Century  supplied  all  Europe 
with  chintzes  and 
calicoes. 

There  is  no 
doubt  that  color 
printing  was 
known  to  the  early 
Egyptians, 

Persians,  and 
Chinese.  Ancient 
Mosul  in  the  early 
Christian  Era  was 
famous  for  its 
muslins ; and  col- 
ored  fabrics, 
printed,  as  well  as 
painted,  were  used 
in  Europe  at  an 
early  age,  impossi- 
ble to  fix  definitely 
by  any  reliable 
data.  Block  print- 
ing on  fabrics  was 
undertaken  in 
Italy  during  the 
Thirteenth 


ICS  AND  PAPER 

Century.  In  the  Fourteenth  Century  printed  linens 
were  made  in  Flanders. 

Painted  cloths  with  stories  or  legends  came  into 
use  during  the  time  of  Henry  IV,  England,  early  in 
the  Fifteenth  Century ; some  of  them  were  intended 
doubtless  as  models  for  tapestries ; at  a little  later 

period  they  were 
dyed  and  painted, 
possibly  stenciled 
and  printed. 

The  Portuguese, 
early  in  the  Six- 
teenth  Century, 
1530,  imported 
“painted”  hang- 
ings from  the  East, 
but  whether  done 
by  hand  or  by  pro- 
c e s s and  whether 
or  not  the  term 
“painting”  might 
n o w be  regarded 
as  printing,  is  a 
question.  It  is  a 
noticeable  fact  that 
the  French  name 
for  the  early  imi- 
tation of  chintz 
was  Pcrses,  u n - 
doubtedly  relating 
to  the  Persian 

1 66 


From  an  Indian  cotton-printer’s  book  of  patterns. 


origin  of  chintz,  a fact  reasonable  to  conclude  when 
you  consider  that  Persia  was  open  to  commerce  at  a 
period  a little  earlier  than  India  or  China. 

While  we  are  accustomed  to  examples  of  extra- 
ordinary richness  of  furniture  and  fabric  during  the 
reigns  of  Louis  XIV  and  Louis  XV — years  of  great 
decorative  wealth — it  is  a fact  little  known  that 
printed  linens  or  painted  linens,  commonly  called 
India  prints,  became  so  popular  in  France  and 
threatened  so  seriously  the  prosperity  of  the  silk  trade 
that  many  French  factories  took  up  the  manufacture, 
and  Colbert,  to 
protect  his  pet 
organization,  pro- 
hibited in  1 6 8 6, 
under  pain  of 
severe  penalty, 
either  the  m a n u - 
facture  or  importa- 
t i o n of  printed 
linen.  Neverthe- 
less they  were 
manufac- 
tured  clandestinely 
and  persistently 
until  finally  the 
authorities  i n s t i - 
tuted  a plan  of 
searching  for  and 
burning  everything 
in  the  nature  of  a 
printed  linen. 

But  the  popu- 
larity of  the  fabric 
was  too  much  for 
the  law  to  cope 

167 


with.  Even  Madame  Pompadour  herself  had  her 
chateau  at  Bellevue  decorated  with  contraband  prints. 

The  term  “painted”  linen  is  often  confusing.  In 
1759,  when  the  French  ministry  decided  to  authorize 
the  manufacture  of  linens  and  cottons,  the  French  in- 
dustry may  be  said  to  have  started,  because  heretofore 
all  that  was  done  was  done  surreptitiously.  By  1789 
a hundred  factories  were  in  operation  and  Christopher 
Philip  Oberkampf,  a German,  had  developed  some 
new  methods  at  Jouy,  near  Versailles.  He  introduced 
the  “resist”  method.  The  pattern-  was  printed  and 

then  the  whole 
fabric  was  dipped 
in  a dye ; a deep 
red,  for  instance. 
Again  the  fabric 
was  submerged  in 
an  acid  bath  which 
withdrew  the  red 
color  wherever  it 
touched  the  lines 
of  the  chemically 
printed  design, 
leaving  the  natural 
linen  color.  But 
at  the  beginning 
of  the  industry 
they  knew  only 
one  mode  of  print- 
ing— ■ that  of  -the 
Orientals.  The 
linen  was  laid  on 
a table  and  the 
workmen  pressed 
upon  it  by  hand  a 
block  of  wood 


Intricate  design  worked  out  in  colors;  Jouy,  1745-1811. 


PRINTED  FABRICS  AND  PAPER 


engraved  with  the  outline  of  the  design.  The  piece 
then  passed  through  the  hands  of  the  brushers,  or 
painters,  who  filled  them  in  with  a brush  of  various 
colorings. 

More  slowly  did  they  conceive  the  idea  of  print- 
ing uniformly  certain  colors  with  the  aid  of  second 
plates  which  overlaid  the  lines  or  the  outlines  of  the 
first  plate.  In  1780  printing  by  copper  plates  made 
its  appearance.  They  were  deeper  plates  and  finer. 

By  1797  such  progress  had  been  made  that  by 
cylinder  printing,  which  at  this  date  was  introduced, 
they  were  able  to  print  in  one  day,  on  one  machine, 
the  work  ordinarily  accomplished  by  forty-two  block 
printers. 

And  now  began  not  alone  the  art  but  the  industry 
of  linen  printing.  The  vast  amount  of  material  now 
turned  out  was  naturally  of  the  French  Transition  or 
Empire  character.  France,  during  the  period  of 
Louis  XV  and  Louis  XVI,  was  rich  in  printed  linens 
and  they  were  used  in  enormous  quantities. 

Paper  in  quantity  or  size  was  not  made  until  the 
Twelfth  Century,  and  even  then  13x26  inches  was 
considered  a large  sheet.  The  first  mention  of  rag 
paper  we  find  is  in  Cluny,  1122. 

Nobody  knows  when  the  first  examples  of  wall- 
paper were  made  in  Europe,  but  if  the  record  of 
Herman  Schinkel,  the  Dutch  printer,  is  correct — that 
he  actually  made  wall-paper  in  Holland  in  1568, 
“printing  roses  and  stripes  on  the  back  of  common 
ballad  paper  and  applying  it  as  a covering  for  his 
attic  walls,”  he  was  undoubtedly  inspired  by  some- 
thing he  had  seen  or  heard  of,  possibly  by  the  cloth 
prints  of  early  Flanders ; possibly  by  the  “Domino” 
papers  of  Italy  or  by  the  Portuguese  imports,  because 
it  is  fair  to  conclude  that  Indian  or  Persian  papers 
had  been  introduced  by  the  Portuguese  traders  fol- 
lowing Albuquerque’s  settlements  in  Persia,  1505.  The 
Dutch  were  not  active  in  the  East  until  the  downfall 
of  Spain  and  Portugal  in  1600. 

To  be  sure  we  have  heard  of  Jehan  Boudichon 
and  his  fifty  rolls  of  wall-paper  for  the  King’s  bed- 
chamber in  1481,  but  they  were  not  rolls  as  we  under- 
stand the  term ; at  that  time  paper  was  made  in 
squares  about  36  x 15  inches.  Continuous  lengths  were 
not  made  until  1780-1800.  The  Boudichon  papers 
were  scrolls  and  not  fastened  to  the  walls.  We  have 
heard  of  colored  papers  for  decorations  at  the  time 
of  the  entrance  of  Louis  XIII  into  Lyons  in  1507. 
They  were  pictures  on  paper  not  applied  to  the  wall, 
but  loosely  hung. 

The  term  “domino”  was  Italian  and  used  in  Italy 
in  the  Fifteenth  Century  in  relation  to  marble  prints. 
At  first  the  paper  was  used  only  for  box  linings  and 
was  usually  stained  irregularly,  but  French  taste  in- 
troduced arabesques  and  finally  figures  and  the  manu- 
facture continued  steadily  and  developed  eventually 


to  papers  of  larger  size,  and  we  have  record,  1586,  of 
marbled  papers  and  papers  of  all  colors,  and  printed 
with  figures. 

By  1700  there  was  hardly  a house  in  Paris  that 
did  not  utilize  this  domino  work  on  walls  or  screens. 
They  were  printed  from  blocks  of  pear  wood,  finished 
off  in  distemper  colors,  or  dusted  with  powder,  or 
finished  with  a flock  in  imitation  of  flock  cloths,  some- 
times referred  to  as  velvets.  In  1787  we  find  a de- 
cree of  the  King  declaring  that  the  art  of  painting 
and  printing  paper  used  in  furnishings  was  a depend- 
ence of  the  governing  board  of  the  Merchants-Pape- 
tiers-Dominotiere-Feuilletinere,  which  shows  that  the 
term  “domino”  still  clung. 

We  take  exception  to  the  theory  that  the  Chinese 
were  the  first  makers  of  wall-paper  or  that  the  Dutch 
were  the  first  importers.  The  fact  that  a printer  in 
Delft  made  paper  in  1568  predisposes  one  to  believe 
that  something  of  the  sort  had  been  already  intro- 
duced. Indeed  we  know  that  “domino”  papers  were 
already  made  in  Italy.  However,  Chinese  trade  had 
not  been  opened  at  that  early  date,  but  the  Portuguese 
early  in  the  Sixteenth  Century  traded  in  Persia  and 
India.  There  is  no  authentic  record  of  Chinese  paper 
until  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  1643,  when  we  began 
to  hear  of  “pagoda”  paper  for  walls. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  Eighteenth  Century 
wall-paper  manufacture  began  to  develop  in  France 
and  England.  It  is  probable  that  the  first  factory  was 
set  up  in  France  in  1746.  The  industry  thrived,  but 
Chinese  papers  continued  in  popular  use.  Some  of 
them,  highly  artistic,  were  utilized  by  the  wealthy 
classes.  Exquisite  compositions  of  foliage  and  flow- 
ers, birds  and  butterflies,  landscapes,  water  and  sky 
scenes,  the  work  of  the  Japanese  as  well  as  the  Chinese. 
The  paper  was  printed  upon  squares ; continuous  rolls 
were  not  undertaken  until  about  1790.  The  perfected 
process  was  patented  in  England  about  1800,  but  our 
American  records  show  that  paper  made  in  the  roll 
was  advertised  in  this  country  in  1790.  There  is  no 
reason  to  assume  that  we  were  behind  the  times ; there 
was  wealth  in  America  and  the  wealthy  classes,  even 
at  this  early  date,  enjoyed  the  latest  luxuries  from 
Europe. 


s. 


QUEEN  ANNE 


1 7 0 2 — 1 7 1 4 


Hogarth  type  of  Queen 
Anne  chair. 


WHILE  the  term 
Queen  Anne  begins 
naturally  with  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne,  1702, 
it  had  its  inception  with  the 
close  of  the  Jacobean.  We 
have  illustrated  already  a 
number  of  examples  of  late 
Seventeenth  Century  English 
furniture,  which  brings  us  up 
to  the  period  1702.  The  in- 
fluences of  Louis  XIV  were 
disseminated  both  in  Holland 
and  England  by  Marot  and 
other  French  artists,  who  had 
fled  in 


1685  at  the 

time  of  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes.  Unlike  the  turned 
work,  the  bulbous  forms  of  the 
periods  from  Charles  II  to  Will- 
iam and  Mary,  we  have  the 
terminals,  the  cabriole  leg,  the 
stretchers  and  frequently  the 
pediment  forms  of  the 
French.  The  smooth  splat  is 
always  a Queen  Anne  char- 
acteristic.  The  smooth 
stretcher  instead  of  the  carved 
and  ornamented  stretcher  of 
the  Charles  II  period  was  a 
natural  development.  There 
were  probably  no  smooth 

splat-back  chairs  before  1700.  There  was  probably 
no  smooth  cabriole  leg  until  1702. 

While  the  cane  chair  was  found  in  the  beginning 
of  Queen  Anne’s  reign  it  had  been  identified  with 
earlier  work  and  was,  subsequent  to  1700,  succeeded 
by  upholstering  of  a substantial  kind.  Flat  uprights 
were  also  used  in  the  backs  of  the  chairs  which  were 
now  more  comfortable  than  in  previous  epochs,  being 
not  only  shaped  to  the  back,  but  divested  of  carvings. 
The  seat  became  broader  and  the  top  corners  of  the 
back  were  rounded.  Shell  details  were  conspicuous. 
The  claw  and  ball  finally  came  in  about  1708.  To  the 
comfort-giving  qualities  of  the  smooth-backed,  full- 
seated  chair  were  added  comfortable  upholsterings, 
and  the  grandfather  chair  became  popular,  a form  that 
was  begun  as  far  back  as  1680,  but  was  not  developed 
to  the  full  until  well  into  the  Queen  Anne  regime. 

Double  chairs  or  small  sofas,  called  “love  seats,” 
were  only  wide  enough  for  two.  The  sides  were 
often  in  wings  and  when  these  wings  extended  very 
high  they  were  called  draught-chairs.  The  width  of 


Queen  Anne  “Love  Seat. 


the  chair  seats  at  this  time  was  due  largely  to  the 
flaring,  voluminous  costumes  worn  both  by  the  women 
and  the  men. 

As  far  back  as  1680  we  find  many  examples  of 
record  where  the  cabinetmaker  has  not  used  stretchers 
between  the  legs  of  his  chairs,  but  one  may  say  ap- 
proximately that  the  use  of  stretchers  was  practically 
abandoned  by  1708. 

The  tendency  to  simplicity  of  form  expressed  in 
the  furniture  was  extended  to  other  woodwork  of  the 
room.  Over-door  fitments  were  frequently  of  simple 
pediment  type.  The  woodwork  was  in  most  cases 
walnut.  There  are  records  of  mahogany  as  early  as 
1708,  but  its  use  was  unusual.  Gilt  ornament  and 
marquetry  and  gilt  furniture  were  common.  A great 
deal  of  Chinese  wall-paper  and 
Chinese  and  Indian  prints  was 
used. 

Commercialism  prevailed  to 
an  extraordinary  degree  and  both 
the  Dutch  and  the  English  East 
Indian  Trading  Companies  were 
active.  At  this  period 
America  naturally  felt  the 
effects  of  this  commercialism 
and  the  colonies  were  satu- 
rated with  the  Queen  Anne 
spirit.  Indeed,  to  appreciate 
fully  the  Colonial  furnishings 
at  this  time  one  must  under- 
stand the  Colonial  relations 
with  the  mother  country,  for 
while  many  American  cabinet- 
makers, upholsterers  and  decorators  thrived  in  the 
larger  cities  of  the  new  country  they  accepted  the  fash- 
ionable dictates  of  Europe  and  conformed  to  the  con- 
temporary styles. 

While  much  Colonial 
furniture  approximated  the 
Queen  Anne  type,  the  same 
is  true  also  of  practically 
the  entire  Georgian  period, 
so  that  any  attempt  to  fix 
Colonial  by  its  resemblance 
to  Queen  Anne  alone  is  apt 
to  be  misleading. 


A Late  Queen  Anne  Card  Table. 
“Cards  in  1730  were  the  re- 
source of  all  the  world.  Every 
night  for  hours  kings  and 
queens  of  England  sat  down  and 
handled  their  majesties  of 
spades  and  diamonds.” — 
Thackeray. 


1 69 


/ 


I N THE  QUEEN  ANNE  PERIOD. 

Bed  in  which  Queen  Anne  slept  on  the  occasion  of  her  visit  to  Brympton.  The  bed  is  entirely  covered  with  rose  damask. 


IN  THE  QUEEN  ANNE  PERIOD. 

Walnut  bed,  1710,  double  frieze  carved  and  gilded.  Back  is  in  four  panels, 


1730.  From  Walpole  collection.  About  one-half  of  the  sofa.  Walnut  and  gilt.  1723.  About  one-half  the  size.  Walnut  covered  with  needlework. 


QUEEN  ANNE. 


QUEEN  ANNE 


Queen  Anne  Chairs. 


The  term  Colonial  means  anything  from  Jacobean 
to  the  end  of  the  colonies  and  even  beyond. 

Indeed  for  a 
quarter  of  a cen- 
tury after  the 
close  of  the  colo- 
nies we  have  a 
definite  style, 
called  late  Colo- 
nial or  sometimes 
. Jeffersonian,  that 
is  simply  a reflec- 
tion of  the  French 
Empire,  the  same 
type  being  adopt- 
ed in  England  by 
Thomas  Hope. 

The  term  Colo- 
nial covers  a wide 
range  of  thought. 

It  was  during 
the  Jacobean  pe- 
riod that  the  first 
settlers  landed  in 
New  England. 

During  the 
commonwealth 
p e r i o d of  16fj3- 
1 6 5 9,  Virginia 
and  M a r y 1 a h d 
profited  by  the 
Royalist  classes, 
out  of  power  in 
England  and 
many  of  whom 
were  in  exile. 

During  the 
Queen  Anne  pe- 
riod, which  may 

be  said  to  have  had  its  inception  with  Charles  II,  1660, 


the  English  laws  restricted  American  imports  to  Eng- 
land, and  a great  deal  of  East  India  goods  came  into 
this  country  through  English  channels. 

In  1685  the  Edict  of  Nantes  caused  French  emi- 
gration, hut  it  was  not  until  later  under  George  III 
that  the  French  spirit  had  any  material  influence. 

In  considering  the  Colonial  style  we  must  always 
analyze  it.  We  must  determine  always  date  and  locale. 
The  Cottage  Colonial  of  New  England,  late  in  the 
Seventeenth  Century,  had  nothing  in  common  with  the 
Ceremonial  Colonial  of  the  late  Eighteenth  Century. 
The  styles  covered  a period  of  two  hundred  years. 
We  copied  from  the  English,  the  Dutch  and  the 
French.  We  benefited  by  the  imports  from  Asia,  par- 
ticularly from  the  East  Indies,  and  beginning  about 

the  middle  of  the 
Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury, from  China. 
There  was  wealth 
here  in  • many  of 
the  cities  and  a 
fashionable  e 1 e - 
ment  that  profited 
by  the  best  that 
Europe  afforded. 

History  tells 
us  ©f  the  progress 
of  the  American 
nati@n,  and  with 
the  knowledge  of 
the  time  and  the 
classes  we  can 


Queen  Anne  Period. 


Itil; 


Queen  Anne  interior,  showing  characteristic  furniture  and  draperies. 


turn  back  to  European  chronology 
and  fix  pretty  definitely  the  char- 
acter of  the  Colonial  style. 

V 

On  the  left,  Queen  Anne  chair  seats. 


*75 


Georgian. 


THE  TRADES  IN  THE  GEORGIAN  PERIODS 


EARLY  in  the  century  the  gardens  of  the  Em- 
peror of  China  had  been  described  by  architects 
to  assist  the  taste  in  landscape  gardening.  In 
1750  William  Halfpenny  produced  a book  of  new  de- 
signs for  Chinese  temples,  triumphal  arches,  garden 
seats,  and  he  says  that  at  that  time  Chinese  manner  of 
building  was  already  introduced  in  England  with  suc- 
cess. Another  book,  by  Edwards  and  Darley,  which  ap- 
peared four  years  later,  was  overcrowded  with  Chinese 
suggestions,  particularly  frets. 

The  work  of  Mathias  Darley  belongs  more  prop- 
erly to  the  post-Chippendale  period  because  it  was  more 
in  sympathy  with  the  Adam  school. 

Were  it  not  for  the  literature  of  the  times,  the 
catalogues  issued  by  the  various  cabinetmakers  and 
even  the  architects,  we  would  know  little  of  the 
subject. 

We  know  that  besides  the  great  masters  there  was 
an  organization  called  the  Society  of  Upholsterers  and 
Cabinetmakers,  doubtless  composed  of  many  capable 
men.  A volume  issued  by  this  body  is  undated,  but 
probably  came  out  before  Chippendale’s  book,  “The 
Director.” 

Horace  Walpole’s  interest  stimulated  the  public 


taste  for  the  Gothic  style  and  no  book  was  complete 
without  designs  for  Gothic  furniture;  the  “Society  of 
Upholsterers,”  published  probably  about  1750,  was  full 
of  Gothic  suggestions. 

Manwaring  claimed  that  his  book,  published  1765, 
showed  the  first  suggestion  for  rural  furniture  made 
from  twisted  limbs  of  the  yew  and  apple  trees.  Man- 
waring  seems  to  have  imitated  all  that  was  weak  in 
Chippendale. 

Ince  and  Mayhew  published  a book  that  seerns 
like  a caricature  of  the  Chippendale  style,  and  adopted 
all  that  was  flamboyant  and  exaggerated.  They  illus- 
trated card  tables  with  places  for  counters  and  stands 
for  candles. 

The  English  architects,  decorators  and  cabinet- 
makers from  the  time  of  Inigo  Jones  developed  rapidly. 
He  with  John  Webb,  Edward  Carter,  and  Nicholas 
Stone,  expressed  the  Italian  spirit  up  to  Cromwell, 
1653.  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  Nicholas  Hawksmoor, 
Sir  John  Van  Brugh  and  James  Gibb  became  famous 
up  to  and  into  the  period  of  George  I.  From  this 
point  we  can  classify  the  great  leaders  as  Early 
Georgian,  Middle  Georgian  and  Late  Georgian. 


EARLY  GEORGIAN. 

Period  of  George  I,  1714-1727. 

Hogarth,  artist  and  critic,  1697-1764. 

Grinling  Gibbons,  1648-1721. 

Sir  Christopher  Wren,  1632-1724. 

Nicholas  Hawksmoor,  1666-1736. 

Isaac  Ware,  published  “Complete  Body 
of  Architecture,”  1750. 

James  Gibbs,  1694. 

Sir  John  Brugh  (contemporary). 

Colin  Campbell,  published  many  books, 
1781,  1795,  1798. 

Richard  Harris,  first  connected  the 
pendulum  with  a clock  movement,  1641. 

Thomas  Archer  (contemporary  of  Kent). 

Abraham  Swan,  published  “The  British 
Architect,”  1745. 

William  Kent,  painter,  architect  and  de- 
signer, 1684-1748. 

W.  Jones,  published  “Gentleman  or 
Builder’s  Companion,”  1739. 

Sir  Robert  Taylor  (contemporary). 

James  Paine,  1725-1789. 


MIDDLE  GEORGIAN. 

Period  of  George  II,  1727-1760. 

Thomas  Chippendale,  1708-1779;  first 
known  plates  dated  1753.  His  “Cabi- 
netmaker’s Director”  came  out  in 
1754,  1759,  1762. 

Robert  Manwaring,  published  book,  1765. 

Edwards  and  Darley,  published  book. 
1754. 

Ince  and  Mayhew,  published  their  book, 
1762. 

Sir  William  Chambers,  published  book 
in  1760. 

Copeland,  issued  work  1752.  _ 

Isaac  Ware,  best  work  about  1750-1756. 

Mathias  Lock,  issued  books,  1752,  1765. 

Thomas  Johnson,  published  volume  of 
designs,  1758. 

J.  Crunden,  published  books  1765,  1770, 
1776,  1796. 

Milton  (contemporary). 

Josiah  Wedgwood,  famous  for  plaques 
and  pottery,  1730-1795. 

Overton  (contemporary). 

Francesco  Bartolozzi,  born  1710,  re- 
moved to  England,  1767. 

Mathias  Darley,  published  his  book 
1754-1769. 

William  Halfpenny,  issued  a book  on 
Chinese  architecture  and  furniture, 
1750. 


LATE  GEORGIAN. 

Period  of  George  III,  1760-1820. 

R.  & J.  Adam  published  their  first 
volume  on  Italian  art,  1764.  First 
general  volume  of  architectural  de- 
tails appeared  in  1773,  reflecting  the  j 
classic  taste  following  the  discoveries  J 
of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii. 

J.  Carter,  followed  Adam  style. 

Antonio  Zucchi,  painter  (worked  for 
Adam). 

Society  of  London  Cabinetmakers,  1770- 
1800. 

Angelica  Kauffmann,  ceiling  and  wood 
painter  (worked  for  Adam). 

Cipriani,  Italian  designer;  worked  in 
England,  1732-1785. 

Pergolesi,  painter,  1775  (worked  for 
Adam). 

William  Clement,  made  first  long  clock 
case,  1780. 

Columbani,  1775. 

Sheraton,  published  great  book,  1791. 

Shearer,  published  book,  1787. 

Hepplewhite,  published  book,  1789. 

N.  Wallis,  published  books  of  ornament, 
1771. 

George  Richardson  (contemporary). 

Thomas  Hope,  published  book  in  1807. 

George  Smith,  published  book  in  1808- 
1826. 

Richard  Gillow,  1800;  improvements 
and  methods  of  table  slides. 

W.  Thomas  and  Joseph  Rose,  painters 
and  decorators. 


176 


Chippendale  chair  backs. 


GEORGIAN  — CHI  PPEN  DALE— CHAMBERS 


IN  THE  reign  of  the  early 
Georges,  beginning  1714,  there 
was  a mania  for  everything 
French  and'  for  the  Chinese  motifs 
popularized  in  England  by  Sir  Will- 
iam Chambers,  to  whom  the  cabinet- 
makers and  architects  were  greatly 
indebted. 

Chambers  produced  nothing 
strikingly  new  but  adopted  much 
that  had  gone  before.  He  was  de- 
cidedly un-English.  He  had 
made  many  voyages  tq  East 
India  and  had  spent  much  of 
his  time  in  China  studying  the 
habits,  customs  and  architec- 
ture of  the  people. 

As  early  as  1757  Cham- 
! b e r s described  a Chinese 
room : 

F , The  side-walls  are  matted 
—1  about  three  or  four  feet  upward 


from  the  pavement,  the  rest  being  cov- 
ered with  white,  crimson  or  gilt  paper ; 
instead  of  pictures  they  hang  on  them 
long  pieces  of  satin  or  paper  stretched 
on  frames  and  painted  in  imitation  of 
marble  or  bamboo,  on  which  are  writ- 
ten moral  sentences  or  proverbs. 
Sometimes  they  hang  a very  large  sheet 
of  thick  paper  covered  with  antique 
Chinese  paintings.  The  mov- 
ables consist  of  chairs,  stools  and 
tables,  made  sometimes  of  rose- 
wood, ebony  or  lacquered  work, 
and  sometimes  of  bamboo  only. 

When  the  movables  are  of 
wood  the  seats  of  the 
stools  are  often  of  marble 
or  porcelain.  In  the  cor- 
ners of  the  room  are 
stands  four  or  five  feet 
high  on  which  they  set 
plates  of  citron  or  other 
fragrant  fruits,  branches  of 
coral,  vases  of  porcelain  and 
glass  globes  containing  gold 


All  Chippendale  pieces.  Square  legs  were  made  by  Chippendale  about  1750. 


1 77 


These  illustrations  have  been  copied  direct  from  Chippendale’s  first  known  book,  “The  Gentleman  and  Cabinetmaker’s 
Director,”  dated  1754.  They  illustrate  three  characteristic  types,  the  Classic,  the  French  and  the  Chinese. 


178 


GEORGIA  N— C HIPPENDAL  E— C H A M B E R S 


fish,  together  with  a certain  weed  somewhat  resembling 
fennel.  On  such  tables  as  are  intended  for  ornament  they 
place  landscapes  composed  of  rocks,  shrubs  and  a lily  which 
grows  among  pebbles  covered  with  water.  But  among  the 
principal  ornaments  are  the  lanterns,  of  which  there  are  gen- 
erally four,  suspended  from  the  ceiling. 

Chambers  had  no  idea  of  the  effect  that  his 
book  would  have,  but  the  Chinese  taste  grew  to  extra- 
ordinary dimensions. 

In  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  the  custom  of  panel- 
ing was  partially  kept  up.  The  chimneypiece,  however, 
only  went  half-way  up  the.  wall.  White  woodwork  was 
affected.  Low,  marble  mantelpieces  were  used,  but 
with  the  beginning  of  the  Georgian  we  had  the  great- 
est possible  variety  of  taste — classic,  Roman,  Turkish, 
Pompeiian,  French.  Roy- 
alty having  set  the  fashion, 

Chinese  also  became  a 
special  fad.  Not  only  were 
Summer  houses  and  other 
buildings  erected  in  C h i - 
nese  style,  but  it  w a s 
mixed  up  with  all  the 
ornaments  of  the  period. 

The  walls  of  the  rooms 
were  simply  covered 
with  scenes  of  Chinese 
life,  bridges  and  boats 
and  impossible  stair- 
cases and  mattings  and 
lacquers  being  abund- 
antly in  evidence.  All 
the  furniture  was  mark- 
ed by  the  Chinese  influ- 
ence, and  Chippendale 

affected  with  rare  abandon  the  use  of  the  pagoda,  the 

Other  architects  fol- 
student  of  the  classic, 
followed  blindly  with 
Ince,  Mayhew  and 
Manwaring,  and  sat- 
isfied popular  clamor. 
Rounded  wood  was 
used  in  the  bamboo 
fashion,  but  of  turn- 
ed beech  and  painted 
in  imitation  of  reeds 
or  cane. 

Gothic  was  also 
copied,  and  the  flam- 
boyant French  was  in 
evidence.  Frequently 
in  a room  we  find  the 
Chinese  spirit  com- 
bined with  Louis  XV, 
just  as  in  France  this 
same  combination 


bell,  dragons,  and  mandarins, 
lowed ; even  Lock,  who  was  a 


was  very  successfully  effected. 

Just  before  the  death  of 
George  I,  in  1727,  the  elder 
Chippendale  came  to  England 
and  began  making  furniture 
founded  upon  the  Queen 
Anne  fashions.  He  was 
accompanied  by  a son,  a 
boy  eighteen  years  of  age, 
also  called  Thomas  Chip- 
pendale, and  the  son  ab- 
sorbing the  French  taste 
of  the  Louis  XV  period, 

1715  to  1774,  soon  showed 
his  talent  as  a carver  and  a 
joiner.  Chippendale  was 

born  1708  and  buried  November 
Probably  he  died  No- 
vember 10  or  11.  His  first  plates 
are  dated  1753,  and  his  book  “The 
Gentleman  and  Cabi- 
netmaker’s D i rec- 
tor,” came  out  in 
1754.  The  second 
edition  was  brought 
out  in  1759,  and  the 
third  in  1762.  This 
was  the  first  furni- 
ture catalogue  and  it 
sold  for  sixteen  dol- 
lars a copy.  It  was 
issued  under  the  pat- 
ronage of  a long  list 
of  subscribers,  mem- 
bers of  the  nobility  as  well  as  cabinetmakers,  among 
them  Ince  and  his  partner  Mayhew. 

Although  Chippendale  was  successful,  he  was  no 
more  so  than  others  and  his  reputation  was  largely 
posthumous.  It  is  seldom  that  we  find  records  of  his 
name.  Even 
Walpole,  who 
left  many  mem- 
oranda concern- 
i n g designers 
and  decorators, 
never  alludes 
to  Chippendale, 
and  old  Ameri- 
c a n advertise- 
ments fail  ever 
to  mention  his 
name.  His  con- 
temporaries 
were  Manwar- 
ing, Mayhew, 

Edwards,  D a r - 
ley,  Mathias 


All  pieces  on  this  page  are  Chippendale. 


179 


GEORGIA  N— C HIPPENDAL  E— C H A M B E R S 


Lock,  Copeland,  Thomas  Johnson,  and  Crunden. 

The  years  of  the  first  George,  King  of  England, 
were  the  transition  years  of  wal- 
nut and  mahogany,  1714  to  1727. 

From  1715  to  1720  Queen- Anne 
styles  became  a little  more  squat 
and  heavy. 

From  1720  to  1730  there 
was  a great  deal  of  elaborate, 
gilt  furniture  and  about  this 
period  we  find  what  is  known  as 
the  lion  pattern,  lions’  heads  on 
the  knees  of  furniture  legs. 

Sometimes  the  lion’s  head  or 
mask  is  used  as  a center  dec- 
oration. The  lion’s  paw  was 
used  in  place  of  the  claw  and 
ball  for  the  foot  of  the  leg. 

As  early  as  1720  we  find 
veneered  mahogany,  because 
from  1715  to  1720  the  solid 
wood  was  not  only  very  ex- 
pensive but  hard  to  manipu- 
late. By  1721  Walpole  was  in 
power  and  set  the  fashion  for 
mahogany  in  his  use  of  it  for 
the  magnificent  doors  at 
Houghton,  which  he  began  to 

build  in  1721.  Kent  was  the  architect.  Much 
elaborate  gilt  furniture  was  used  following  the  models 
of  the  Flemish  fashions.  The  splat  back  was  universal 
but  this  back  was  often  elaborately  carved.  Middle- 


Furniture  on  this  page, 
Chippendale. 


class  homes  were  furnished  with  furniture  simplified 
by  the  use  of  straight  legs. 

By  1733,  Walpole  succumbed  to  the  demands  of 
the  cabinetmakers  and  took  the  duty 
off  mahogany,  and  from  this. date  ma- 
/ hogany  became  generally 
used.  By  1733  the  lion’s 
head  was  elaborated  by 
the  addition  of  a ring  in 
the  mouth. 

By  1735,  we  find 
the  splat  back  opening 
out  into  slits,  sometimes 
vase  shaped.  The  hoop- 
ed or  rounded  top  of  the 
back  departed  and  it 
curled  up  at  the  corners. 
This  squaring  up  of  the 
chair  back  caught  the 
fancy  of  the  trade  gen- 
erally. It  seemed  to 
lighten  the  appearance 
of  a piece.  The  cresting 
also  of  the  back  became 
like  a cupid’s  bow.  This 
bow  effect  together  with 
the  claw  - and  - ball  foot, 
dates  between  1730  and 
1750. 

By  1740  the  cabriole  leg  had  shed  its  masks  and 
lion’s  heads  and  was  carved  in  low  relief  with  the 
acanthus  and  similar  effects.  The  splat-back  was  now 
being  cut  into  strap  devices  which  led  up  to  the  ribbon- 
back  of  1750.  The  years  1737  to  1750  saw  the  rise 
of  Chippendale  and  the  full  evolution  of  the  square- 
backed  chair  as  distinguished  from  the  hooped  back. 
Little  by  little  the  back  had  been  punctured ; little  by 
little  the  corners 
of  the  back  were 
lifted  square. 

Then  the  punc- 
turing of  the 
back  b e c a me 
m ore  compli- 
cated until  it 
developed  finally 
the  ribbon  back 
typical  of  the 
late  period. 

We  note  also 
pierced  rails  and 
elaborate  orna- 
mentation, fre- 
quently uniting 
Chinese  and 
Louis  XV 
motifs. 


180 


We  illustrate  a page  of  Chippendale,  showing  the  Chinese  lattice  and  the 
mixture  of  Louis  XY.  We  also  illustrate  three  chairs  above,  which  are  in 
the  Sheraton  and  Hepplewhite  styles,  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  splat  in 
the  Chippendale  chairs  invariably  comes  down  to  the  back  rail  of  the  seat, 
re-enforcing  and  strengthening  the  backs,  while  the  backs  of  the  Sheraton 
and  Hepplewhite  were  above  the  chair  seat  always. 


181 


CHINESE  INFLUENCE  IN  THE  LOUIS  XV  AND  CHIPPENDALE  STYLES. 


THE  CHINESE  SPIRIT 


was  a closed  country  for  centuries,  and  Japanese  art 
was  not  known  to  commercial  Europe  until  after  1854, 
when  Commodore  Perry,  who  had  entered  the  harbor 
a year  previously,  effected  a treaty  between  Japan 

and  the  United  States,  fol- 
lowed eight  months  later  by 
Japan’s  treaty  with  Great 
Britain,  a year  later  with 
Russia,  and  three  years 
later  with  France. 

What  we  regard  as 
the  Chinese  spirit  is  not 
necessarily  pure  Chinese. 
Frequently  the  Chinese 
spirit  was  merged  with  the 
Gothic  or  with  Fouis  XV, 
or  with  some  other  French 
and  English  style. 


be  attributed  to- Chambers,  the 
taste  was  felt  as  early  as  Will- 
iam and  Mary,  1689;  and  even 
earlier  in  France,  1660,  under 
Mazarin  (Louis  XIV).  In 
1720  Louis  XV  dispatched  an 
embassy  to  China  to  encourage 
greater  trade  relations,  and 
this  step  was  followed  by  a 
rage  for  Chinese  stuffs. 

Japan,  on  the  other  hand, 


Indeed  the  pure 
Chinese  spirit,  as  shown, 
particularly  in  the  rugs 
of  China,  was  seldom 
seen.  The  form  utilized 
was  the  adapted  form 
wherein  the  Gothic, 
Louis  XV  or  some  con- 
ventional background 
was  treated  in  Chinese 
motifs,  plucked  from 
the  pottery  and  pro- 
jected upon  European 
composition.  In  the 
same  way  the  architects 
reproduced  bits  of  land- 
scape and  laid  garden 
walks  and  grottoes, 
from  the  suggestions 
found  in  pottery. 


While  the  pop- 
ular adoption 
of  Chinese  decora- 
tion in  England  can 


183 


Hepplewhite  and  Sheraton  desk,  wardrobe  and  cabinet  feet. 


HEPPLEWHITE 

Chippendale’s  great  book,  1754.  Hepplewhite’s  book,  1789.  Sheraton’s  Cabinetmaker 
and  Upholsterer’s  Drawing  Book,  1791. 


PRIOR  to  Queen  Anne 
chimneypieces  were 
carried  to  the  ceiling 
as  part  of  the  woodtrims, 
but  by  1700  the  chimney- 
piece  never  went  above 
half  the  height  of  a 
room.  White  trims  were 
also  introduced  at  this  - 
period  and  have  clung, 
more  or  less,  especially 
to  small  rooms  requiring  greater 
light,  to  this  day. 

In  1755  Chambers,  returning 
from  Italy  with  Cipriani,  brought 
back  a number  of  Italian  sculptors 
who  made  mantels.  These  mantels 
were  put  into  a house  independent 
of  the  architect  and  established  a 
new  height,  sometimes  four,  five  or 
even  six  feet,  but  independent  of  the 
woodtrims  and  usually  marble  or  other 
stone.  They  became  an  article  of 
general  trade  and  were  sold  by  the 
fireplace  fixture  dealers. 


Chippendale  Cabinet. 


Another  change  came  with  Hep- 
plewhite when  wood  mantels  were  in- 
troduced. Wreaths  of  flowers  and 
classic  details  were  painted  on  natural 
wood  with  plaques  introduced. 
Fantastic  elegance  became  the 
fashion,  and  plain  wood  was  elabor- 
ately colored.  Satinwood  and  ma- 
hogany were  mainly  used,  painted, 
gilded  and  inlaid. 

Contrary  to  the  popular  belief, 
glass  knobs  were  not  made  at  this 
period,  but  during  the  late  Colonial 
period  in  America  and  introduced 
later  into  England,  just  as  the  use 
of  mahogany  was  common  in 
America  for  many  years  before 
utilized  by  the  English  cabinet- 
makers. Inventories  and  wills  in 
this  country  dated  1708,  refer  to 
mahogany  furniture,  such  pieces  be- 
ing solid  and  frequently  in  desks  of 
the  Queen  Anne  style7~wfftr claw-and- 
ball  foot  and  serpentine  front. 

Hepplewhite  had  many  contem- 


Hepplewhite  and  Sheraton  examples. 


185 


HEPPLEWHITE 


HEPPLEWHITE 


poraries,  few  of  whom  have 
survived  in  history.  Among 
the  cleverest  was  Shearer, 
a member  of  the  Cabinet- 
makers’ Society.  He  prob- 
ably was  as  well  known  in 
his  day  as  Hepplewhite.  It 
is  a curious  fact  that  while 
Hepplewhite’s  book  was 
full  of  chairs  Shearer 
makes  no  reference  to  a 
chair,  a fact  possibly  due  to 
an  understanding  with 
Hepplewhite  to  avoid  his 
specialty.  Shearer’s  furni- 
ture, like  Sheraton’s,  was 
full  of  concealed  drawers, 
hidden  receptacles.  There 
were  no  safe  deposit  vaults 
in  those  days  and  one  had 
to  depend  upon  the  cabinet- 
maker for  devising  hiding 
places.  Shearer  was  not  so 
well  educated  nor  had  he 
the  artistic  feeling  of  Hep- 
plewhite ; his  furniture 
was  heavy  and  he  repeat- 
edly utilized  the  Prince  of 
Wales’  feathers.  His  in- 


Hepplewhite  chair  backs  were  oval  or 
shield  shape  and  had  a curved  top.  The 
base  was  unsupported,-  Sheraton  utilized 
straight-line  effects  and  where  he  used  the 
shield  shape  he  broke  the  curve  at  the  top. 


T221 


W .v ; 
, *V*  ' ...  : V? 

|l|Sg^^il|;",|!|,|l! 

Hte/jiiteiS 


The  illustration  on  the  left-hand  at  the  bottom  of  this  page  is  an  Adam  piece;  the  second  illustration  is  a, Sheraton;  the 
third  and  fourth  Chippendale.  The  illustrations  above  are  by  Shearer. 


The  first  and  second  illustrations  represent  the  hardware  used  from  about  1660  to  1720.  The  second  and  third  illustrations 
were  used  in  the  first  half  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  The  solid  drop  handles,  as  shown  by  illustration  5,  were  commonly  used  until 
about  1790,  at  which  time  the  pressed  brass  became  popular,  shown  in  illustration  7.  From  this  date  through  the  Empire  and  late 
Colonial  up  to  1820  rosettes  with  inserted  rings  were  used  and  in  America  glass  knobs  were  common. 


genuity  in  the  invention  of  furniture  was  quite  as  great 
as  Hepplewhite’s. 

It  was  about  this  time  that  the  wardrobe  came 
in.  Hepplewhite  produced  wardrobes  that  supplanted 
in  practical  usefulness  the  highboy. 

Hepplewhite’s  chairs  were  mainly  for  the  room 
known  then  as  the  “parlour,”  a term  that  has  clung. 

We  first  heard  of  parlors  in  the  Medieval  times 
when  it  was  part  of  the  common  hall  but  screened  off 
for  the  privacy  of  the  family.  It  gradually  became  a 
separate  room  often  used  as  a bedroom.  Later  it  was 
synonymous  with  the  modern  dining-room.  Accord- 
ing to  Johnson,  1755,  it  was  “A  room  for  receiving 
company.”  Sheraton  and  Hepplewhite  used  the  words 
parlor  and  dining-room  as  interchangeable  terms.  The 
chairs  were  frequently  covered  with  horsehair  in  col- 
ored stripes  and  check  designs,  the  edges  finished  with 
a close  line  of  brass-headed  nails ; sometimes  they  were 
cane-seated. 

The  Duchess  chair  of  Hepplewhite  was  an  ar- 
rangement of  two  armchairs  facing  with  a third 
chair  or  ottoman  placed  between  them  continu- 
ing the  seats  along  one  level  and  making  one  piece  of 
furniture. 

High  clocks  were  very  popular.  The  history  of 
clocks  would  take  us  back  to  the  Medieval  ages — in- 


deed, if  specifically  dealing  with  timepieces,  to  the 
prehistoric  years.  Our  interest  in  the  subject  starts 
with  the  first  making  of  household  clocks.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Seventeenth  Century  clocks  were  made 
at  a moderate  price  and  were  known  as  bird-cage, 
bedpost  and  lantern  clocks.  They  were  the  kind  that 
were  wound  by  pulling  down  opposite  ends  of  ropes 
on  which  weights  were  hung.  None  of  them  would 
run  more  than  thirty  hours.  The  pendulum  was  not 
introduced  until  1670,  and  it  is  at  this  time  that  we  fix 
the  origin  of  the  grandfather’s  clock.  The  bracket 
clock  having  a handle  on  top  enabling  one  to  carry  it 
around,  came  in  about  1675.  Mantel  clocks  were 
another  type,  introduced  at  about  the  time  of  banjo 
clocks,  so  called  on  account  of  their  shape,  produced 
just  after  the  American  Revolution,  about  1805,  and 
very  popular  in  America  where  they  originated. 

The  Hepplewhite  and  styles  followed 

the  Adam  tendencies  strongly  and  yet  there  was  in- 
dividuality in  each  man’s  work  which  gave  character 
eagerly  followed  by  their  contemporaries. 

In  the  mind  of  the  modern  decorator  the  differ- 
ences are  not  clear.  Broadly  considered,  while  Hepple- 
white and  Sheraton  were  both  influenced  by  their  con- 
temporary Adam,  Sheraton  leaned  to  Louis  XVI. 

To  simplify  the  subject  we  have  arranged  the 
characteristics  of  the  two  schools  in  parallel  columns. 


On  the  left,  an  Adam  sideboard;  center,  Hepplewhite,  showing  concave  corner;  on 
the  right,  Sheraton  showing  back  rail  and  characteristic  convex  corner. 


189 


Shearer  furniture,  with  Hepplewhite  mirror  and  chair  of  the  period. 


Hepplewi-iite. 

I.  The  Hepplewhite  chair  backs  are  as  a rule 
heart  or  shield  shaped,  and  the  bottom  is  unsupported 
by  any  rail.  The  top  of  the  back  of  a Hepplewhite 
chair  shows  a sweeping  curve. 

II.  The  arms  move  out  with  a swing  and  join 
the  leg  as  a part  thereof.  All  Hepplewhite  work  is 
in  sweeps  and  unbroken  lines. 

III.  The  chair  legs  are  in  most  cases  square.  In 
the  inexpensive  chairs  they  are  plain  or  with  a simple 
reed  or  inlaid  at  the  corners.  In  some  chairs  of  the 
better  type  we  find  fluted  legs. 

A characteristic  of  most  Hepplewhite  chairs  was 


Sheicajoh— 

I.  The  Sheraton  chairback  is  usually  in  straight 
lines  and  supported  by  a bottom  rail.  While  occa- 
sionally Sheraton  used  a shield  back,  he  broke  the 
sweep  at  the  top  by  some  sharp  straight  line. 

II.  Sheraton  arms  moved  out  with  a swing  and 
joined  the  legs  as  independent  parts,  pedestal-like. 

III.  The  chair  legs  run  strongly  to  the  Louis 
XVI  style.  . Sheraton  strengthened  the  back  and  ig- 
nored the  under  framing  of  his  chairs.  He  used 
reeded  and  fluted  legs,  twisted  pillars,  festoons,  husks, 
cornucopias.  He  carved  swags  of  drapery  and  flow- 


190 


DRAWING-ROOM  AT  NOSTELL  PRIORY. 

The  painted  panels  on  either  side  of  the  mantelpiece  emanated  from  the  hand  of  the  brothers  Adam,  who  reconstructed  and  decorated  the 

room. 


HEPPLEWHITE  — SHERATON 


the  under-framing : Hepplewhite  left  the  back  weak 
and  the  legs  strong.  Mahogany  and  inlays  were  much 
used.  The  seats  are  upholstered  frequently  in  horse 
hair,  leather,  cane,  or  in  any  kind  of  fabric. 

IV.  Sideboards  were  usually  made  with  concave 
corners  because  of  the  decorative  effect. 


V.  He  became  famous  for  his  Pembroke  tables. 
He  indulged  not  only  in  inlays  and  carving,  but  in 
painting,  japanning  and  brought  into  his  services 
Angelica  Kauffmann,  Cipriani,  and  Pergolesi.  The  pole 
fire  screen  was  just  becoming  popular.  It  was  in- 
tended simply  to  screen  the  firelight  from  a lady’s 
face  and  the  screen  itself  was  frequently  no  wider 
than  eight  or  ten  inches ; a bit  of  embroidery,  a mat, 
or  bit  of  needle-work.  The  feet  of  the  pole  were 
loaded  with  lead  to  prevent  its  upsetting.  Tea  caddies 
were  very  popular.  The  Dutch  did  not  introduce  tea 
drinking  until  about  1660,  and  it  was  fully  1690  when 
the'  custom  became  prevalent. 

VI.  Hepplewhite’s  bookcases  were  furnished 
with  glass  doors,  the  glass  being  cut  into  patterns. 
They  were  called  traceried  doors,  the  lines  or  traceries 
being  of  mahogany  or  satinwood,  brass  or  lacquered 
wood.  These  traceried  forms  in  Hepplewhite  doors 
were  usually  angular. 

VII.  His  pediments  over  doors  or  windows  were 
usually  fragile  and  finnicky. 

While  Chippendale  was  one  of  the  first  to  in- 
troduce the  highboy,  Hepplewhite  improved  it.  He 
made  also  secretaries,  secretary  bookcases,  bureau 
bookcases,  toilet  tables,  washstands,  chests,  shaving 
stands,  side  tables,  girandoles,  wall  mirrors,  brackets, 
and  innumerable  other  pieces,  all  treated  from  a deco- 
rative standpoint. 

While  bedsteads  were  draped  in  anything,  Hep- 
plewhite in  his  book  commends  particularly  Manches- 
ter prints  to  be  lined  with  white  cotton.  He  also 
recommends  specifically  green  silk  as  appropriate  for 
mahogany. 


ers ; he  used  the  vase  and  rendered  all  these  motifs 
beautiful  in  carving.  Occasionally  he  painted.  He 
introduced  the  conversation  chair,  the  sort  of  thing 
which  one  straddled  facing  the  back  upon  which  one 
leans. 

IV.  Sheraton  sideboards  had  the  added  super- 
structure of  a brass  railing  against  which  dishes 
rested.  Sometimes  the  railing  was  balanced  with 
candelabra,  a plan  seldom,  if  ever,  adopted  by  Hep- 
plewhite, who  did  not  consider  comfort  and  conveni- 
ence so  much  as  decoration.  The  interior  of  the 
sideboard  was  full  of  conveniences. 

Sheraton’s  sideboards  were  made  with  convex 
corners,  thus  giving  a little  more  room.  In  other  re- 
spects many  of  the  Hepplewhite  and  Sheraton  side- 
boards are  almost  identical. 

V.  His  Pembroke  tables  were  furnished  with 
scrap  bags.  As  an  instance  of  his  ingenuity  one  of 
his  tables  was  called  a Harlequin  table,  so  termed 
because  in  Harlequin  exhibitions  there  is  generally 
a great  deal  of  machinery  introduced.  Some  of  his 
desks  had  disappearing  drawers  and  pigeon-holes, 
leaving  a space  free  for  the  breakfast  table. 


VI.  In  Sheraton  traceried-doors  curves  were 
generally  utilized,  the  oval  and  the  vase  being  fre- 
quently used  as  centerpieces. 


VII.  Pediments  were  of  a substantial  character. 

Sheraton  introduced  a form  of  horse  screen,  a 
larger  lower  set  piece  than  the  pole  screen.  Some- 
times these  screens  were  furnished  with  swinging 
toilet  boxes  on  the  side,  or  receptacles  for  odds  and 
ends  of  the  dressing  table,  also  candle  holders. 

While  he  showed  a preference  for  the  round  or 
turned  leg  for  chairs  he  followed  the  square  shape  of 
the  Louis  XVI  style  very  largely  with  his  tables,  side- 
boards and  other  cabinet  work. 

His  grandfather’s  clocks  were  generally  inlaid. 

Sheraton’s  work  will  frequently  be  recognized 
because  of  its  extraordinary  ingenuity.  He  was  an 
inventor  and  produced  many  pieces  of  convertible 
furniture,  tables  with  concealed-  stepladders,  bureaus 
with  convertible  desks.  He  made  many  little  pieces 
of  utility  furniture.  He  considered  not  only  grace 
of  style  but  comfort.  He  anticipated  the  American 
roll-top  desk  by  producing  something  almost  iden- 
tical. 


191 


Sheraton’s  pediments,  though  showing  somewhat  the  same  characteristics  as  Hepplewhite’s,  were  more  substantially  constructed. 


S H E R 

A QUICK  understanding  of  the 
character  of  Sheraton  furnish- 
ings may  be  had  in  the  knowl- 
edge that  Sheraton  cabinet  work  was 
a little  more  ornamental,  a little  more 
profuse,  than  Hepplewhite ; the  fab- 
rics used  were  in  harmony  ; little  fig- 
ure details  of  the  Louis  XVI  order 
were  particularly  favored.  Both  Hep- 
plewhite and  Sheraton  upholsterings  and  draperies 
were  of  a light  and  filmy  type  and  rich  in  every  pos- 
sible variety  of  fine  weaves.  Sheraton  leaned  toward 
the  French,  although  the  decoration  of  houses  into 
which  the  Sheraton  furniture  entered  was  frequently 
in  the  pure  Adam.  The  styles  of  Sheraton  and  Hepple- 
white were  closely  associated  and  the  distinction  is  not 
always  clear.  Our  previous  chapter  points  to  many 
of  the  differences. 

Sheraton  employed  often  the  lyre  form  in  his 
chair  backs  and  used  a form  of  needlework  in  burning 
or  engraving  panels  of  satinwood  with  rosewood  in- 
laid; all  of  his  work  was  at  first  of  an  original  type, 
but  little  by  little  he  copied  slavishly  anything  French. 

t-  He  originated  intricate  ornaments  for  legs  and 
backs  of  chairs  and  turned  work  as  well  as  inlay  was 
much  affected. 

He  picked  out  designs  with  gildings  and  employed 
cameo-like  panels.  He  suggested  in  his  book  that  orna- 
ment may  be  white  and  gold,  japanned  or  painted,  and 


A T O N 

advised  that  the  cove  and  ceiling  be  richly  ornamented 
in  paintings  and  gold.  His  use  of  satinwood  or  white 
mahogany  was  extended  even  to  the  production  of 
mantelpieces.  His  drawing-room  schemes  provided  for 
wall  panels,  mirrors  and  draperies  a little  more  stiff 
than  those  of  Hepplewhite,  as  a foil  to  the  complexity 
of  his  furniture  details. 

When  we  consider  that  Sheraton  designed  many 
rooms  and  furniture  for  the  Prince  of  Wales,  after- 
wards George  IV,  and  for  most  of  the  nobility,  we  can 
understand  that  he  was  not  worried  by  any  considera- 
tions of  economy. 

He  confessed  to  an  admiration  for  Shearer,  and 
there  are  many  examples  of  simple  Sheraton  inlay  that 
strongly  resemble  Shearer. 

Both  men  made  the  same  little  corner  washstands 
and  toilet  accessories.  Sheraton  was  an  extraordinary 
inventor  and  not  only  introduced  beautiful  pieces,  but 
pieces  of  great  originality  and  far  in  advance  of  the 
times,  full  of  quaint  combinations,  hidden  drawers, 
parts  that  were  convertible,  turning  from  one  use  into 
another,  cleverly  hidden  accommodations,  for  boxes  or 
writing  materials  or  toilet  articles — desks  that  became 
dressers  and  fancy  tables  that  became  washstands. 

If  he  had  never  made  a reputation  as  a cabinet- 
maker and  designer,  he  would  have  become  famous  as 
a mechanician. 

It  was  a period  when  bedrooms  were  frequently 
used  as  sitting-rooms  and  very  many  ingenious  pieces 


*93 


Chair  and  desk,  Sheraton  ; balance  probably  Hepplewhite. 


of  bedroom  furniture  were  concealed  in  bookcase 
forms  or  desks  or  writing  stands. 

Even  washstands  folded  up  and  became  cabinets. 
It  is  well  to  remember  that  in  1750  thousands  of  silk- 
weaving  looms  were  established  in  England  at  Spital- 
fields,  Cheshire,  Yorkshire,  Essex,  Derbyshire,  Lan- 
cashire and  Norfolk.  Moreover,  at  this  period  up 
to  the  beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  an  enor- 
mous lot  of  Indian  silks  and  cottons  were  used ; in 


1759  the  manufacture  of  printed  linens  was  author- 
ized and  encouraged  by  the  French.  (See  page  167.) 

Sheraton  died  in  what  might  almost  be  called 
poverty.  He  was  not  a good  business  man  and  his 
style  was  at  its  best  in  the  beginning  of  his  career.  If 
he  failed  to  gain  material  compensation  for  his  art  it 
was  because  he  was  unable  to  progress  beyond  the 
limitations  which  hedged  him  in  and  the  work  of  in- 
numerable competitors  who  had  no  hesitation  in  copy- 
ing his  style. 


194 


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ITPMV 


THE  ADAM  SPIRIT  WHICH  INFLUENCED  CONTEMPORARY  FURNITURE  MAKERS: 

HEPPLEWHITE,  SHERATON,  SHEARER. 


Adam  furniture  in  which  the  classic  spirit  is  emphasized. 


R.  AND  J.  ADAM  — 1765-1790 


Robert  ad  am,  the 

elder  of  the  two 
brothers,  R.  and  J., 
was  born  in  Scotland  1728. 
He  was  educated  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  studied 
in  Italy  under  a French  archi- 
tect, became  F.  R.  S.  and 
F.  S.  A.  and  before  he  was 
forty  he  was  architect  to  the 
King  of  England.  He  died  in 
1792  and  was  buried  with  high 
honors  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
His  brother  was  closely  identi- 
fied with  him  in  all  his  work. 

The  Adam  broth- 
ers were  not  furni- 
ture makers  but 
architects,  decorators 
and  designers,  e m - 
ploying  Angelica 
Kauffmann  and  h e r 
husband,  Antonio 
Zucchi,  Cipriani,  Per- 
golesi  and  a host  of 
others.  They  built 
palaces  for  the  nobil- 
ity, houses  for  the 
middle  classes,  ter- 
races, bridges,  even 
streets  and  squares, 
and  in  almost  every 
instance  their  work 
was  classic.  The 
Chinese  craze  cropped 
out  now  and  then,  but 
its  popularity  waned 
from  the  inception  of 
this  epoch.  Their 
style,  reflecting  the 
spirit  of  Pompeii  and 


Herculaneum  in  a purer  type  than  was  expressed  in 
the  late  Louis  XVI  adaptations,  left  its  deepest  im- 
pressions on  ceilings,  side-walls  and  mantelpieces  pro- 
duced under  the  architects’  direction.  They  were  tinted 
usually  in  jasper  or  palest  gray  colors.  Circles  and 
ovals  were  used  as  frames  for  pictures. 

They  utilized  mythological  ornament,  the  hexa- 
gon, circle,  octagon  and  lozenge-shaped  panel,  wreath, 
fan,  medallion,  draped  or  with  figures,  the  sphinx, 
griffin,  sea  horse,  goat,  faun,  ram’s  head,  the  caryatid 
and  innumerable  other  classic  motifs  found  in  Roman, 
Pompeiian  and  Etruscan  work.  They  designed  walls, 
ceilings,  mantelpieces,  even  door  knobs,  escutcheons, 
locks — everything  that  went  into  a room,  including 
table  tops  and  furniture  panels.  While  they  were  by 


197 


R.  AND  J.  ADAM 


no  means  furniture  makers, 
the  brothers  Adam  always  de- 
signed furniture  to  fit  their 
rooms ; many  sideboards  with 
urn  - shaped  knife  - boxes 
and  classic  brackets,  ped- 
estals, clock  cases  and 
mirrors  were  designed  by 
them.  They  even  designed 
the  carriages,  the  plate  and 
the  sedan  chair  for  Queen 
Charlotte.  Their  style 
was  a complete  departure 
from  the  massive  and  pon- 
derous compartment  ceilings 
of  the  Jacobean.  Instead 
they  adopted  light  moldings, 
delicate  stucco  frames  and 
painted  ornaments.  They  advanced  the  theory  that  the 
dining-rooms  being  so  often  utilized  for  extended  con- 
versation should  be  fin- 
ished with  stucco  and 
adorned  with  statues  and 
painting  and  never  hung 
with  tapestry  or  d a m - 
ask,  “which  retains  the 
smell  of  the  victuals.” 

As  a result  many  of 
their  rooms  so  largely 
depending  on  the  work 
of  the  painter  and  sculp- 
tor lacked  c o z i n e s s . 

They  were  often  circular  or  semi  - circular  or 
with  circular  recesses. 


By  Cipriani. 


The  gesso  work  of 
Italy  was  adapted  and  the 
ceilings  were  part  in  relief 
and  part  painted,  the  plas- 
ter being  put  on  cameo- 
like, with  great  delicacy. 
Italian  artisans  were  re- 
quired for  this  work,  which 
preceded  the  use  of  plaques 


and  friezes  furnished 
for  late  Adam  work  by 
Wedgwood,  who  caught 
the  Adam  craze  and 
commercialized  it.  The 
brothers  were  so  earn- 
est in  imparting  their 
spirit  to  the  entire  room 
that  they  insisted  upon 
even  the  carpets  being 
By  Adam.  in  unison  with  the  sur- 

roundings. The  palest 
tints  of  color  and  neutral  tints  of  carpets  to  match 
were  utilized.  Even  the  table  cloths  corresponded  in 


Paneled  side-wall  and  furniture  by  Pergolesi. 


O V 

§ 


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bfi 

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O -5 

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pattern  and  the  unity  scheme  was  carried  out  in  the 
silver  plate,  the  table-tops,  even  the  snuff-boxes. 

Their  first  published  volume  on  Italian  art  is 
dated  1764;  next  volume  almost  purely  Pompeiian, 


1773.  The  period  of  their  greatest  success  was  con- 
temporary with  Chippendale,  Hepplewhite  and  Shera- 
ton. Being  primarily  architects,  their  mantels  and  side- 
walls  are  conspicuous  examples.  Their  moldings  are 
usually  of  simple  classic  order ; the  vase  and  urn  are 
favorite  details,  generally  accompanied  by  swags  or 
festoons  of  drapery,  leaves  or  husks.  While  acanthus 
scrolls  and  chimerical  creatures  characterize  their 


199 


TYPICAL  ADAM  SIDE-WALLS. 


R . & J . ADAM 


An  Adam  lounge  or  daybed. 


work,  they  were  not  treated  in  the  heavy  Roman 
school,  but  with  delicacy.  Wedgwood  ware  was  fre- 
quently utilized,  in  panels  and  plaques. 

Michael  Angelo  Pergolesi  is  responsible  for  much 
of  the  fame  which  attaches  to  the  name  of  the  brothers 
Adam.  In  1777  Pergolesi  published  a perfect  store- 
house of  Italian  designs  covering  plaster  friezes,  bor- 
ders for  painting  on  furniture,  doors,  sides  of  rooms, 
pier  tables,  settees  and  silver  plate.  Often  he  left  a 
center  of  his  panel  work  blank  to  be  painted  by  Cipriani 
or  Angelica  Kauffmann  in  scenes  of  child  life  or 
nymphs.  The  same  idea  was  often  repeated  in  mar- 
quetry and  painted  furniture. 

W.  Thomas,  a contemporary,  followed  the  Adam 
style,  together  with  N.  Wallis,  Columbani  and  George 
Richardson. 

Richardson  in  1792  published  a work  on  wall 
treatment  that  was  exceedingly  interesting.  He  fol- 
lowed very  closely  the  scenes  from  Greek  mythology  or 
Roman  history,  and  bacchanalian  figures  and  nymphs 
usually  decorated  the  corners. 

The  same  thing  was  frequently  done  by  Zucchi, 
the  Venetian  painter,  whose  fame  was  gained  in  Eng- 
land. His  walls  were  often  tints  of  the  lightest  char- 
acter, paneled. 

To  fix  the  relative  influences  of  the  conspicuous 
styles  of  this  period  we  would  explain  that  the  first 
illustrated  book  bearing  directly  on  furniture  was  that 


of  W.  Jones,  who  published  the  “Gentleman  or  Build- 
er’s Companion”  1739. 

Chippendale’s  first  book  was  published  1754. 
Adam’s  influence  was  approximately  1765-1790. 
George  Richardson’s  book  was  published  in  1776; 
Columbani’s  1775;  John  Crunden’s  1765,  1768,  1770; 
Wallis’  1771. 

Hepplewhite’s  epoch-making  book  appeared  1789. 
Sheraton  published  the  book  which  made  his 
name  in  1791. 

There  were  in  all  four  Adam  brothers.  John  in- 
herited the  father’s  business  as  architect.  R.  and  J. 
were  the  second  and  third  sons,  while  William  Adam, 
who  died  in  1822,  was  the  youngest  brother. 


Oak  chair  with  cresting  rail  of 
Charles  II  period  retained  and 
perforated,  arched  center  peculiar 
to  walnut  designs. 


Oak  chair  with  elaboration  and  turned 
legs  and  uprights  of  William  and 
Mary  period  retained  and  having 
Queen  Anne'  splat  of  1710. 


Oak  chair  with  sunk  seat  for  cushion. 
Turned  uprights  and  legs  and  curious 
back  showing  transition  from  lath 
back  to  splat  back. 


Cricket  table  of  about  1750. 


Lancashire  spindle-back  chairs. 


Cricket  table  of  about  1700. 


Windsor  Chairs. 


COLO 

COLONIAL  furniture  is  simply  the  furniture 
used  in  the  colonies.  We  can  differentiate  in 
the  phases  of  Colonial  furniture  by  localizing, 
and  then  we  have  New  England  Colonial,  Dutch 
Colonial,  Southern  Colonial  and  the  periods  Seven- 
teenth, Eighteenth  or  Nineteenth  Century. 

It  is  a mistake  to  assume  that  Colonial  furnishings 
were  necessarily  primitive.  Historians  give  ample 
record  of  wealth  in  the  Southern  States  long  before  the 
beginning  of  the  Eighteenth  Century. 

Pory,  writing  of  Virginia  as  early  as  1617,  spoke 
of  the  growing  wealth  of  the  Southern  colonies. 

In  1607  Jamestown  was  settled  by  the  English  ; in 
1613  New  York  was  settled  by  the  Dutch;  in  1620  the 
Puritans  settled  in  New  England.  From  1650  to  1660, 
during  the  period  of  the  Commonwealth  in  England, 
the  Southern  States  profited  by  considerable  immigra- 
tion drawn  from  the  Cavalier  and  Royalist  classes 
then  out  of  power.  In  1674  the  Dutch  settlements  of 
America  went  into  English  possession. 

From  this  record  we  can  form  a fair  idea  of  the 
character  of  Colonial  furniture.  The  South  was  in- 
fluenced by  French  styles,  especially  at  the  period  of 
Charles  II  when  the  French  styles  prevailed  in  England. 

New  York  and  the  Middle  States  were  largely  in- 
fluenced by  the  Dutch. 

New  England  took  inspiration  from  all  the  periods, 
and  from  the  beginning,  skilled  craftsmen,  joiners, 
cabinetmakers  and  carvers  settled  in  New  England  and 
during  the  Eighteenth  Century  a very  small  proportion 
of  the  furniture  used  in  New  England  was  imported. 
New  England  cabinetmakers  were  numerous  and  ex- 
pert, and  New  England  furniture  from  1700  to  1776 
found  a ready  sale  all  through  the  colonies.  The 
principal  woods  used  were  oak,  ash,  elm,  walnut,  maple, 
pine  and  red  cedar.  Goods  were  brought  to  the  colonies 
so  quickly  from  abroad  that  the  new  fashions  appeared 


N I A L 

in  American  homes  quite  as  quickly  as  in  the  country 
houses  of  England. 

Readers  of  history  need  not  be  told  of  the  great 
wealth  in  the  country  even  in  the  earlier  half  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century.  Esther  Singleton  has  gone  into 
this  subject  very  thoroughly  and  John  Fiske,  the  emi- 
nent historian,  says : 

“The  Puritan  exodus  to  New  England,  which  came 
to  an  end  about  1640,  was  purely  English.  Like  the 
best  part  of  the  emigration  to  Virginia,  it  consisted 
largely  of  country  squires,  thrifty  and  prosperous.  . . . 
The  best  part  of  the  New  England  immigration  con- 
sisted of  people  prosperous  in  their  old  homes,  from 
which  their  devotion  to  an  idea  (religious)  made  them 
voluntary  exiles.” 

Again  quoting  from  this  authority:  “Up  to  1688 
there  were  26,000  New  Englanders,  and  from  this  num- 
ber, in  the  following  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  there 
have  descended  at  least  one-quarter  of  the  present 
population  of  the  United  States. 

“The  laws  of  the  early  colonies  were  discouraging 
to  the  poor  people,  who  went  to  the  Barbadoes,  Hon- 
duras or  elsewhere.  Even  as  late  as  1714  the  immigra- 
tion laws  of  the  New  England  colonies  were  strictly 
enforced,  forbidding  one  to  enter  who  was  unable  to 
furnish  proof  of  financial  responsibility.  During  the 
fifty  years  preceding  the  American  Revolution  there 
was  much  wealth  in  the  colonies,  measured  by  the 
standard  of  wealth  in  those  days.  A fashionable  social 
life  centered  about  the  representatives  of  the  Crown, 
and  the  pride  of  the  wealthy  found  expression  in  hand- 
somely decorated  homes.  In  Maryland  and  Virginia, 
where  the  High  Church  adherents  and  the  Catholics 
settled,  there  was  an  aristocratic  tendency,  the  happy 
combination  of  climate  and  agricultural  facilities  en- 
abling the  people  to  support  a generous  style  of  living 
as  landed  gentry.” 


203 


COLONIAL 


There  are  no  authentic  records  of  mahogany  fur- 
niture in  American  inventories  prior  to  1708,  but  the 
fact  that  mahogany  was  part  of  the  inventories  of 
that  date  indicates  that  the  wood  was  used  at  an 
earlier  period. 

The  Colonial  styles  followed 
closely  the  English.  We  used 
wall-paper  at  a time  contempo- 
raneously with  that  of  England. 

Mahogany  trims  for  banis- 
ters, mantels,  cornices  and  furni- 
ture were  not  generally  intro- 
duced until  1750.  At  that  period 
Isaac  Ware  wrote:  “The  decor- 
ation of  an  American  room  is  of 
three  kinds ; first,  where  it  is 
coated  with  a plastic  materia 
shaped  into  ornamental  details ; 
second,  covered  by  wainscot ; 
and  third,  where  hung  with  silks, 
tapestries  or  paper.”  As  early 
as  1745,  Charles  Hargraves 
was  advertising  wall-paper  in 
Philadelphia,  and  a very  few 
years  later  Peter  Fleeson  was 
making  paper-hangings,  al- 
though paper  made  in  the  roll 
did  not  appear  till  1790,  the 
same  year  it  appeared  in  Eng- 
land. 

At  the  Metropolitan 

Museum  there  are  many  examples  of  excellent  Ameri- 
can-made furniture  covering  the  Jacobean  types  and  at 
least  forty  pieces  showing  Elizabethan  influence,  the 
principal  characteristics  being  wainscoting,  flat  carving, 
turning,  straight  legs  and  heavy  underbracing,  rails 
and  stiles  mortised,  and  the  tenons  pinned  with  wooden 
pegs.  Other  periods  are  also  well  represented,  includ- 


ing twelve  pieces  grouped  under  the  first  decade  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century  and  attributed  to  Duncan  Phyfe, 
an  American  cabinetmaker  of  great  skill. 

It  is  very  interesting  in  this  connection  to  note  the 
fact  that  small  tables  were  not  thought  of  in  England 
until  the  abandonment  of  great 
halls  and  the  construction  of 
smaller  rooms  also  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  new  drinks,  tea, 
coffee,  and  chocolate,  from  1645 
to  1658,  and  at  that  period  they 
appeared  also  in  this  country. 

Chests  came  over  with  the 
colonists,  and  when  the  use  of 
chairs  became  common  and  the 
chest  was  no  longer  needed  as  a 
seat,  it  was  raised  upon  a trestle 
and  soon  after  drawers  were  in- 
troduced and  we  have  then  “a 
chest  of  drawers.” 

By  way  of  Holland  came  the 
Chinese  fashion  of  lacquering 
furniture. 

As  early  as  1650  we  find 
Connecticut  quite  famous  for  its 
chests.  One  in  Hadley,  Mass., 
was  provided  with  a drawer  and 
became  a type.  So  many  were 
made  that  they  became  known  as 
the  Hadley  chest.  See  illustra- 
tion. 

Towards  the  close  of  Colonial  history  we  have 
a type  of  furniture  and  furnishings  called  Late 
Colonial,  which  was  a development  of  the  Late  Em- 
pire, in  France  developed  by  David  and  in  England 
adopted  by  Thomas  Hope. 

In  this  country,  especially  during  the  Jefferson 
regime,  Latrobe,  the  decorator  and  architect  appointed 


Bedstead, 

Eighteenth  Century. 


On  the  left,  chest,  Connecticut  type,  front  in  three  panels,  end  ones  having  floral  pattern  in  flat  carving, 
center  one  divided  into  four  sections  with  applied  moldings  and  bosses. 

In  the  center,  “Hadley”  chest  with  one  drawer.  Front  covered  with  all-over  design  in  flat  carving;  three 
sunken  panels  with  conventionalized  leaf  and  flower  design. 

On  the  right,  chest  with  two  drawers.  Chest  part  divided  into  three  panels  with  flat  carving.  Called  the 
Connecticut  pattern.  American  oak,  with  top,  bottom  and  back  of  pine. 


204 


COLONIAL 


Field  bed  and  tester ; on  the  right,  an  adaptation  of  the  Wind- 
sor chair.  Early  Nineteenth  Century. 


as  surveyor  of  public  buildings  in  Washington,  exer- 
cised a great  deal  of  influence.  He  eliminated  the  very 
extreme  character  of  the  Empire  school,  the  personal 
elements  interpolated  by  David,  and  the  Egyptian  and 
Roman  symbolisms  of  victory  and 
conquest,  and  retained  the  clas- 
sic simplicity,  notably  the  classic 
column,  and  in  many  cases  the 
eagle’s  head  appeared  in  the  chair 
backs  and  as  central  pediments. 

If  there  is  any  one  distinctive 
form  of  Colonial  furniture  it  is 
this  form. 

Bureaus,  sideboards,  tables 
and  sofas  became  famous  and  are 
still  popular  types  of  strictly 
Colonial  character. 

Colonial  chronology  be- 
gins with  James  I,  but  the 
American  homes  by  no 
means  adhered  to  the  early 
Jacobean  examples  in  archi- 
tecture. The  side-walls  in 
the  Elizabethan  and  Jaco- 
bean homes  were  largely 
wainscoted  and  often  hung 
with  tapestry.  The  ceilings 
were  in  stuccoes  frequently 
colored,  paneled  and  orna- 
mented and  in  heavy  relief. 

These  features  were  not  adopted  in  the  colonies.  The 
country  was  too  young.  Jacobean  furnishings  were  in 
other  respects  in  common  use,  and  cotton,  linen, 
chintzes  and  other  fabrics  were  much  utilized. 


Architectural  features  of  the  English  home  began 
to  be  copied  with  Queen  Anne,  and  from  that  period 
down  to  the  Georgian,  we  find  many  homes  of  dis- 
tinction in  America. 

None  more  beautiful  can  be 
imagined  than  the  Chase  House, 
the  Harwood  House,  the  Ham- 
mond, the  Lockorman,  the  Bryce- 
Jennings  House,  Byrd’s,  Carroll’s 
or  hundreds  of  other  homes  in 
Salem,  Providence,  Bristol,  An- 
napolis and  other  thriving  towns 
and  cities. 

As  early  as  1774  there  was 
great  wealth  in  the  colonies, r a 
condition  obvious  when  we  con- 
sider that  it  was  from  private 
sources  that  most  of  the  money 
was  obtained  that  sustained  the 
eight  years’  war  with  England. 
The  variety  of  fabrics 
produced  was  unlimited.  In 
silks  Spitalfields  was  a vigor- 
ous rival  to  Lyons.  From 
1727  to  1750  innumerable 
silken  fabrics  were  made,  as : 
brocade  lutestring,  brocade 
tabby,  brocade  tissue,  brocade 
damask,  tobine,  flowered 
tabby,  figured  tobine,  four- 
comber  damask,  double  tissue,  gold  stuff,  double  tabby, 
brocade  satin,  Venetian  brocade,  India  figured  brocade, 
tobine  tabby,  tobine  lutestring,  and  so  forth.  The  style 
of  their  patterns  closely  corresponds  with  that  of  con- 
temporary Lyons  silks. 

In  East  Indian  stuffs  alone  we  have  a list  of  forty 
terms. 


Field  bed  and  tester 


In  1759  “flowered. damask  for  furniture”  was  im- 
ported. In  1760  “crimson,  blue,  green  and  yellow 
harrateens  with  tassels”  were  imported. 

1762,  Indian  gimp  and  binding. 

176S,  fine  striped  lutestring  (plaip  silk)  Marseilles 
quilts. 

1770,  moreens,  stout 
woolen  curtain  stuffs. 

Harrateen  cloth  was 
made  of  combing  wools. 

Printed  cotton, 
hand-printed,  frequently 
of  very  large  bird  and 
animal  designs. 


Scarlet  and  crimson  cassimere,  calico  and  dimity. 
Durance,  a stout  worsted  cloth. 

Calamanco,  a glazed  linen  stuff. 

Turkey  work,  a coarse,  plain  ground  with  pattern 
tufted  like  a rug  pile.  Paduasoy,  a strong  silk. 

Green  cloth,  crimson 
worsted,  red  cloth,  red 
damask. 

Shalloon,  soy, 
watchet,  linsey  woolsey, 
fustian. 

Silk  muslin,  chintz, 
Indian  calico,  tabby,  sar- 
canet,  taffeta,  horsehair. 


The  earliest  example  of  a Windsor  chair  is  found  in  an  old 
Jacobean  interior  of  Windsor  Castle.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
chair  dates  1650.  It  was  a common  American  article  in  cottage 
use  in  1700.  The  illustration  in  the  left-hand  upper  corner  is 
the  first  example  found.  Immediately  below  it  is  the  well- 
known  Hogarth  chair  of  about  1720,  and  to  the  right  is  a de- 
velopment of  the  Hogarth  with  turned  rail  back  and  Hogarth 
splat,  about  1720.  From  this  directly  comes  the  type  in  the 
upper  right-hand  corner.  The  large  chair  is  one  used  by 
Thomas  Jefferson.  Until  1830  various  kinds  of  Windsor  chairs 
were  common  in  America. 


COLONIAL  FURNITURE  IN  PENDLETON  MANSION,  AFTER  CHIPPENDALE  MODELS. 


COLONIAL 


Caraak,  or  Comacoa,  was  silk  and  camel’s  hair 
mixed. 

Bancours,  a kind  of  tapestry. 

Shalloon  was  a coarse  woolen  cloth. 

Darnix  or  darneck,  coarse,  taking  its  name  from 
Dorneck,  the  Dutch  for  Tournay. 

Perpetuana  (1650),  a very  durable  woolen. 
Damask,  first  made  in  Damascus  in  such  a way 


that  “what  is  not  satin  on  one  side  shows  satin  on 
the  other  side.” 

Green  and  red  paly  is  the  heraldic  term  for  alter- 
nate stripes  of  these  colors. 

Camblet  was  a woolen,  hair  or  silk  twill,  some- 
times waved  or  watered. 

Tabby,  a kind  of  coarse  watered  taffeta. 

Seersucker,  a thin  ridged  and  puckered  material. 


THE  FOREIGN  INFLUENCE 


OF  COLONIAL  STYLES 


Elizabeth.  1558-1603. 


George  I.  1714-1727. 


Jacobean.  1603-1625. 

Jamesl.  1603-1625.  (Commencement  Stuart  Period.) 
Italian  influence.  Inigo  Jones,  dictator  of  style, 
1573-1652. 

1607.  Jamestown  settled  by  the  English. 

1613.  New  York  settled  by  the  Dutch,  and  for  many 
years  after  India  goods  were  brought  over  in 
large  quantities. 

1620.  Puritan  settlement  in  New  England. 

Charles  I.  1625-1649. 

Louis  XIV.  1643-1715. 

Cromwellian.  Commonwealth.  1653-1659. 

During  the  period  of  the  commonwealth,  England, 
Virginia  and  Maryland  profited  by  the  immi- 
grants drawn  from  the  cavalier  and  royalist 
classes,  then  out  of  power. 

Charles  II.  1660-1685. 

James  II.  1685-1689. 

1674.  Dutch  settlements  in  America  went  into  Eng- 
lish possession. 

1680.  English  laws  restricted  American  imports  to 
England  and  English  possessions. 

1685.  Edict  of  Nantes  caused  French  immigration  to 
New  York,  Massachusetts  and  South  Carolina, 
but  influence  on  decorative  arts  was  trivial. 

William  and  Mary.  1689-1702. 

Mahogany  discovered  (1597)  by  Raleigh.  Came 
into  use  1700. 

Anne.  1702-1714. 

Dutch  furniture  largely  imported. 

1702-1714.  Dutch  furnishings  prevailed  owing  to  pop- 
ularity in  England  and  close  political  and  com- 
mercial relations  between  England  and  Holland. 
First  mention  of  mahogany  in  America  1708. 


Sir  Christopher  Wren  and  Grinling  Gibbons, 
famous  architects.  Sir  Christopher  Wren  and 
Grinling  Gibbons  took  up  the  Renaissance  move- 
ment where  Inigo  Jones  left  off. 


George  II.  1727-1760. 

By  1714  the  Colonies  had  reached  that  state  of  afflu- 
ence that  English  styles  appeared  in  American 
homes  as  promptly  as  in  the  suburbs  of  Lon- 
don. 


Louis  XV.  1715-1774. 

Louis  XVI.  1774-1793. 

George  III.  1760-1820. 

Noted  cabinetmakers  and  architects:  Chippendale, 
Sheraton,  Edwards  & Darley,  Thomas  Johnson, 
Ince  & Mayhew,  Manwaring,  R.  & J.  Adam, 
P.  Columbiana,  M.  A.  Pergolesi,  George  Richard- 
son, G.  B.  Cipriani,  Hepplewhite  & Co. 

George  III,  developed  the  work  of  Chip- 
pendale, covering  the  Dutch  adaptation  of  the 
French  and  Chinese,  the  work  of  Thomas  Shera- 
ton. Hepplewhite,  and  the  classic  work  of  R. 
& J.  Adam. 

Empire,  France  1795-1814. 

1807.  Works  of  Thomas  Hope  published,  following 
the  French  Empire. 

1800.  Late  Colonial.  A form  applied  to  the  Ameri- 
can acceptance  of  the  “English  and  French  Em- 
pire,” which  followed  the  French  Empire  and 
was  successfully  introduced  in  England  by 
Thomas  Hope  and  others. 


A Colonial  interior  of  about  1630. 


Kitchen  at  Van  Cort- 
landt  Manor. 


TO  DEFINE  the  term  Colonial 
we  must  fix  the  period  not 
only  chronologically,  but  geo- 
graphically. We  must  discriminate 
between  New  England  and  the  South, 
between  early  and  late.  We  must 
understand  the  conditions,  whether  of 
town  or  country,  because  the  types 
varied. 

One  is  prone  to  regard  in  this 
country  the  characteristic  Colonial 
form  as  that  form  which  presented 
Oriental  furnishings,  brasses,  Chinese  porcelains,  cot- 
ton prints,  con- 
spicuous in  birds 
and  flower  details, 
rich  lacquers,  cop- 
pers and  pewter. 

But  this  form 
lasted  only  from 
1690  to  1740;  in 
England  it  was 
broadly  character- 
ized as  Queen 
Anne. 

The  early 
colonists  enjoyed 
the  same  comforts 
as  their  English 
brothers,  and  sur- 


prising as  it  may  seem,  the  earliest  settlements  were 
furnished  with  window  glass,  at  a period  in  England 
called  Jacobean,  when  window  glass  was  a luxury. 

In  1629  one  of  the  Salem  settlers,  Higgins,  wrote 
to  a friend  in  England,  “Be  sure  and  bring  with 
you  a supply  of  window  glass.” 

The  use  of  glass  in  dwelling  houses  began  about  the  Four- 
teenth Century,  although  we  have  records  of  window  glass 
used  in  Pompeii  79  a.  d.,  and  frequent  references  to  window 
glass  in  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Centuries ; in  the  latter  periods, 
however,  the  glass  was  an  inch  and  a-half  and  two  inches 
thick,  sometimes  discs  or  fragments  joined.  In  the  Fifteenth 
Century  oiled  linen  was  generally  used.  The  Dukes  of 
Burgundy  used  oiled  paper,  and  as  evidence  of  the  general  use 

of  glass  it  will  suffice 
to  say  that  at  the  close 
of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  1790,  there 
existed  in  Paris  itself 
a corporation  for 
making  window  sashes 
filled  with  oiled  paper. 
(“Glass  Making,”  by 
Sauzay.  Scribner.)  Up 
to  this  date  all  glass 
used  for  mirrors  or 
windows  was  limited 
in  size  to  the  lung 
power  of  the  glass 
blower,  which  explains 
the  little  glasses  in 
mirrors  and  cupboards. 
It  was  not  until 
. A 


Pewter" 


COLONIAL 


the  beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  that  a method  was 
produced  for  making  larger  sheets  and  for  a long  while  the 
cost  was  very  heavy.  In  1702  a yard  of  looking  glass  cost 
$32.10.  In  1802  a yard  cost  $39.90.  In  1862  a yard  cost 
$8.75.— Ed. 

American  patriotic  societies  have  preserved  not 
only  many  old  landmarks  and  old  buildings  of  Colonial 
reputation,  but  old  furnish- 
ings. One  must  always 
bear  in  mind,  however,  the 
nature  of  a collection, 
whether  a collection  from 
the  farmhouse,  or  the  city 
house,  the  cottage  or  the 
mansion. 

In  the  Northern  States, 
where  Winter  comfort  was 
considered,  the  rooms  were 
smaller  in  size,  the  ceil- 
ings were  lower,  the  win- 
dows were  smaller  than  we 
find  in  the  South,  where 
weather  conditions  were 
diametrically  opposite. 

We  hear  a great  deal 
of  the  rush-strewn  floors 
of  the  Elizabethan  homes ; 
but  they  were  only  the 
floors  that  were  open  to  the 
tenantry  and  the  serv- 
ants— rooms  of  a public 
character.  We  hear  of  the 
sanded  floors  through 
Pennsylvania,  but  they 
were  the  kitchen  floors 
and  inn  floors.  The  same 
tastes  prevailed  here  as  pre- 
vailed abroad.  All  social 
grades  were  represented, 
and  to  those  who  are  in- 
terested in  the  study  of 
Colonial  sociology  we 
recommend  the  works  of 
John  Fiske,  the  eminent 
American  historian,  “The 
Beginnings  of  New  Eng- 
land,” “Child  Life  in  the 
Colonial  Days,”  “John  Han- 
cock, His  Book,”  and  “Ex- 
amples of  Colonial  Archi- 
tecture,” a volume  of  in- 
teriors and  exteriors  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgian 
homes  by  E.  A.  Crane  and  E.  E.  Soderholz,  published 
in  Germany.  The  decorations  of  the  ceilings,  the  side- 
walls,  the  floors,  even  the  wood  finish  followed  the 
European  styles,  white  woodwork  coming  in  with 
William  and  Mary,  about  1690.  In  1749  Isaac  Ware 
wrote : “The  decoration  of  an  American  room  is  of 


three  kinds — first,  where  it  is  coated  with  the  plaster 
material  wrought  into  ornamental  details;  second, 
where  covered  by  wainscot,  and  third,  where  hung 
with  silks,  tapestries  or  paper,”  for  in  that  year  dealers 
in  America  were  advertising  “to  hang  rooms  with  paper 
or  fabrics  in  the  very  newest  fashion.”  Indeed,  Charles 

Hargraves  advertised  wall- 
papers in  Philadelphia  in 
1745,  and  only  a few  years 
later  Peter  Fleeson  was 
making  paper-hangings  in 
squares,  corner  of  Fourth 
and  Chestnut  Streets, 
Philadelphia.  Nantucket, 
Portsmouth  and  St.  Johns- 
bury,  Vt.,  have  yielded  to 
the  collectors  some  exquisite 
examples  of  wall  decora- 
tions. Thomas  Hancock,  in 
1757,  wrote  to  an  English 
friend  to  send  him  some 
paper-hangings  showing  a 
great  variety  of  birds,  ani- 
mals, fruits  and  flowers 
and  he  adds  to  his  letter: 
“I  think  these  papers  are 
handsome,  better  than 
painted  walls.”  Colo- 
nial characteristics 
were  simply  the  char- 
acteristics of  modifica- 
tion or  adaptation. 
Duncan  Phyfe,  in  his 
time  more  famed  in 
America  than  Chip- 
pendale in  England, 
followed  his  English 
models  with  modifica- 
tions. Latrobe  fol- 
lowed the  Empire 
styles,  but  with  modi- 
fications. The  larger 
cities  and  towns  of 
this  country  were  well 
equipped  with  cabinet- 
makers, who,  at  the 
time,  were  more 
famous  than  Chippen- 
dale, Sheraton  or 
Ilepplewhite,  but  they 

followed  the  English  prototypes. 

We  have  before  us  an  extract  from  a New  York 
paper  of  1771,  which  dwells  upon  the  exquisite  work 
made  by  a New  Jersey  cabinetmaker  who  “served  his 
time  and  was  for  eleven  years  foreman  to  the  great 
cabinetmaker  Hallet.”  If  this  advertisement  is  a mere 
catch-penny  scheme  it  is  evident  the  name  of  Hallet 


2IO 


COLONIAL 


was  considered  at  that  time  a great  bait  in  New  York. 

And  so  also  American  architecture  was  an  archi- 
tecture of  modification  modelled 
upon  the  work  of  Inigo  Jones,  who 
in  turn  modelled  his  style  upon  that 
of  Palladio.  But  where  the  work 
of  Jones  was  superb  and  elaborate, 
in  America  we  followed  his  lines 
simply  in  much  the  same  way  that 
our  late  Colonial  furniture  followed 
the  lines  of  the  Empire,  eliminating 
the  specific  ornamentation  which  in 
France  made  the  style  Napoleonic. 

Not  only  in  the  South,  but 
throughout  the  East  also  the  Palla- 
dian  spirit  was  well  expressed.  As 
early  as  1738  the  discoveries  made 
in  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  still 
further  promoted  interest  and  was 
received  with  great  enthusiasm  in 
America.  Classic  pillars  were 
reared  in  front  of  every  porch  and 
by  1800  pillars  appeared  upon  the 
ends  and  fronts  of  sideboards  and 
bureaus. 

The  full  development  of  this 
movement  was  felt  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  Eighteenth  Century, 
and  if  there  is  any  one  form  of 
architecture  that  may  be  said  to  be  particularly  Colo- 
nial and  any  one  type  of  furniture  that  may  be  similarly 
characterized,  it  is  the  architecture  and  furniture  of 
1800  to  1820  when  simplified  classicism  was  universally 


Above,  mirror  frame,  about  1790;  be- 
low, interior  in  Cowles  house,  Deer- 
field, Mass.,  1752. 


affected.  Some  of  the  old  buffets  and  sideboards  and 
bureaus  of  what  we  now  call  the  Jeffersonian  Period 
were  purely  American  devoid  of  the 
Empire  ornamentation  which  ap- 
peared in  contemporary  French  and 
English  work. 

Up  to  1810  the  characteristics 
of  our  Colonial  styles  were  built 
upon  European  prototypes,  altered 
frequently,  as  Duncan  P h y f e 
altered  the  Chippendale  models,  or 
as  Latrobe  altered  the  David 
models.  Our  cultured  classes  fol- 
lowed closely  the  prevailing  fash- 
ions, and  our  American  cabinet- 
makers and  decorators  learned  in 
almost  all  instances  their  arts 
abroad. 

Phyfe  had  a shop  at  35  Parti- 
tion Street,  now  Fulton  Street,  New 
York.  His  work  from  1802  to  1810 
was  well  known,  following  the  Em- 
pire school. 

The  Dutch  “kas”  was  a linen 
cupboard  used  largely  in  New 
York;  seldom  found  elsewhere  in 
this  country  ; sometimes  carved  wal- 
nut, frequently  of  pine,  cherry  or 
maple,  paneled  or  painted. 

The  heavily-carved  mahogany  beds  with  designs 
of  acanthus  leaves  or  pineapple,  with  high  or  low  posts, 
came  into  use  about  1790,  following  the  Sheraton  and 
Empire  styles. 


Window  and  door  traceries. 


The  butterfly  table,  which 
appeared  about  1700,  was  so 
called  because  the  leaves  were 
supported  by  wings  which  swung 
either  way. 

Turned  woodwork  came  into 
America  with  the  first  settlers ; 
from  1575  to  1620  we  find  a 
great  number  of  examples  of 
turned  work  in  England,  a de- 
velopment of  the  spiral  work  of 
the  earlier  Sixteenth  Century. 

The  cradle  that  came  over 
in  the  Mayflower,  used  for  Pere- 
grine White,  was  wicker,  un- 
questionably made  in  Holland. 

The  first  mention  we  have  of  tea- 
tables  in  America  was  1660.  We  hear 
often  of  the  French  furniture  of  the 
South ; the  only  part  of  the  South 
where  French  furniture  was  used  to 
any  extent  was  Louisiana.  That  sec- 
tion had  been  settled  by  the  French, 
who  brought  with  them  French  fash- 
ions of  the  Louis  XV  and  Louis  XVI 
periods,  and  the  French  styles  were 
adopted  here  in  their  purity.  See 
page  203. 

Chests,  while  utilized  merely  for 
travel,  serving  the  purpose  of  trunk 
and  bureau,  for  years  also  served  as  seats  and  tables. 
They  developed  in  decoration  and  usefulness  in 


\ 

Cradle  chair. 


America  as  they  did  in  England,  becoming  finally  chests 
with  drawers  and  ultimately  bureaus. 

The  use  of  the  word  form 
or  bench  applying  to  the  primi- 
tive seats  still  used  in  some 
schools,  has  survived  the  style  of 
seat  that  succeeded  the  chest. 
Frequently  a room  contained  two 
or  three  forms  and  perhaps  one 
chair. 

At  the  dining  table  these 
forms  were  commonly  used,  ex- 
cepting at  the  head  of  the  table, 
where  the  master’s  chair  was 
placed.  Chairs  of  turned-wood 
and  wainscoted  chairs  followed  ; 
then  rush  and  cane  chairs,  then  up- 
holstered chairs,  in  the  same  order 
they  appeared  in  Europe. 

Rush  seats  continued  popular  until 
1830. 

The  cradle  chair  shown  in  the 
center  of  this  page  is  a curious  piece 
of  furniture,  evidently  having  been 
planned  with  a removable  rail  at  one 
end  of  the  seat  so  that  it  could  be 
used  as  a rocking  settee.  This  remov- 
able rail  would  prevent  a child  from 
rolling  off  the  seat  while  the  free 
space  at  the  end  where  the  back  is 
high  provides  a comfortable  rocking  chair  for  the  at- 
tendant. 


212 


Colonial  Grouping — Everything  except  the  bed  and  the  right-hand  chair  of  early  Queen  Anne  or  late  William  and  Mary. 


Late  Colonial  Room — Using  William-and-Mary  highboy. 


OLD  AMERICAN  WINDSOR  CHAIRS. 


A L 


: 


r- 


1740  1810 


At  the  head  of  this  page  is  shown 
a number  of  examples  of  Colonial 
transom  window  traceries. 

Above  in  this  column,  Colonial 
doorway,  about  1790,  followed  by 
two  Colonial  chairs. 

On  the  right,  a buffet  showing 
the  characteristic  column  construc- 
tion of  late  Colonial  times,  made  in 
New  York,  1807. 


21  5 


Colonial,  1790,  in  the  English  spirit. 


A.  Biedermeier  interior  from  the  Royal  Palace  at  Ludvvigsburg. 
See  definition  of  Biedermeier. 


On  the  right,  restrained  L’Art  Nouveau. 


MORRIS,  BIEDERMEIER,  L’ART  NOUVEAU 


THE  develop- 
ment  of  the 
Empire  Period 
in  France  inspired,  co- 
incidentally, a certain 
decorative  feeling  in 
England,  America  and 
Germany.  In  Eng- 
land the  style  had 
little  vogue,  but  in 
America  it  developed 
structurally  into  what 
is  popularly  called 
“Late  Colonial.” 
From  a recent  issue 
Extreme  L Art  Nouveau.  Qf  Bie  Bulletin  of  the 

Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Art,  over  the  signature  of  Luke  Vincent  Lockwood, 
we  quote  the  following: 

The  evolution  of  style  and  decoration  in  furniture  is 
one  of  the  most  fascinating  and  instructive  of  studies,  and 
America  is  especially  rich  in  specimens  showing  the  various 
transition  stages.  In  no  other  country  has  a style  been  so 
completely  worked  out  as  it  has  here.  . . . Having  once 

acquired  the  style  the  Colonial  workman,  adapting  it  to  the 
needs  of  the  people,  developed  it  until  it  has  reached  a per- 
fection not  attained  in  Europe.  The  truth  of  the  statement 
is  particularly  well  illustrated  in  the  development  of  the  high 
chest  of  drawers.  In  England  this  article  of  furniture  was 
abandoned,  while  yet  in  a rather  crude  state,  for  the  French 
commode  on  the  order  of  the  modern  bureau,  but  in  America 
it  was  developed  and  the  commode  form  remained  compara- 
tively scarce. 


This  statement  was  confirmed  by  the  late  Sir 
Purdon  Clarke,  who  informed  us  that  some  of  his  best 
examples  of  furniture  he  found  in  America.  The  de- 
velopment of  the  Empire  in  this  country  resulted  in 
great  good,  while  in  Europe  all  efforts  at  an  absorption 


217 


MORRIS,  BIEDERMEIER,  L’ART  NOUVEAU 


of  this  style  became  a 
failure.  In  Germany 
the  Empire  school  was 
so  distorted  by  the  ef- 
fort to  popularize  it 
that  it  soon  became 
known  as  the  Bieder- 
meier,  a term  of  re- 
proach. 

Biedermeier  was 
a fictitious  character 
invented  for  the 
pages  of  Fliegcnde 
Blatter,  a good- 
natured  bourgeois 
with  no  aesthetic  per- 
ception. Germany, 
after  the  Napoleonic 
wars,  was  either  too 
poor  or  too  pre- 
judiced to  follow  the 
prevailing  fashions  in 
French  furniture ; 
hence  the  Bieder- 
meier style  which 
eliminated  the  ormolu 
mounts  and  ex- 
pensive carvings 
naturally  symbolic  of 
Empire  decoration, 
and  substituted  mere- 
ly pretty  forms,  pret- 
ty details,  unmeaning 
and  weak.  Not  only 
was  the  studious 
work  of  Fontaine, 
Percier,  David  and 


Above,  L’Art  Nouveau  chair;  below,  modern  German-Empire 
or  Biedermeier  chairs. 


the  brothers  Adam 
pruned  by  the  Bied- 
ermeier gardner,  but 
a lot  of  petty  florals 
were  grafted  in  a 
sort  of  Dutch  garden 
style.  The  acanthus, 
the  vitruvian  scroll, 
the  lotus  and  the  pal- 
mette  were  all  dis- 
placed by  a sort  of 
barnyard  flora.  Sym- 
bolic animals  were 
driven  out  and  tame 
creatures  adopted. 
The  Biedermeier 
period  began  with 
1800  and  ended  about 
1830. 

“With  the  glory 
of  the  Napoleonic 
era,”  writes  Herr 
Lux,  “vanished  also 
the  aristocratic  Em- 
pire style.  From  cos- 
mopolitanism and  its 
political  katzen  jam- 
mer people  fled  back 
to  the  old  land  of 
romance.  Uhland, 
Eichendorff  and 
Schubert  aroused  en- 
thusiastic love  for 
nature.  And  the  in- 
troductionof  the 
moral  element,  as  well 
as  the  influence  of 


MORRIS,  BIEDERMEIER,  L’ART  NOUVEAU 


England  in  matters  of  style,  led  to  the  solid,  square  and 
cylindrical  forms  of  Biedermeier  furniture,  to  which 
reminiscences  of  the  Baroque  and  Empire  styles  re- 
main attached  as  decorative  details.” 

In  England  Thomas  Hope  made  an  ephemeral 
reputation  with  a rather  clumsy  adaptation  of  the 
Empire,  but  its  vogue  was  brief. 

In  America,  contemporaneously,  the  Empire  grew 
and  thrived ; its  influence  was  felt  even  in  the  farm 
districts,  and  classic  pillared  houses  were  erected  with 
chaste  doorways,  columned  and  pilastered  furniture 
was  built  and  a taste  was  generally  observed  for  lines 
that  were  simple,  substantial  and  refined. 

With  the  close  of  the  Georgian  period  the  great 
redivivus  of  art  was  ended,  and  while  the  Victorian 
period  (Queen  Victoria,  1837)  has  indulged  in  fitful 
spurts,  nothing  substantial  has  resulted  and  no  phase 
developed  that  may  be  clearly  defined. 

We  have  had  Eastlake  and  the  Eastlake  craze, 
William  Morris  and  the  Morris  vogue,  Sir  Edward 
Burne-Jones,  Walter  Crane,  Ruskin  and  the  Arts-and- 
Crafts  movements,  but  neither  in  England,  France 
nor  Austria,  where  Art  Nouveau  for  a brief  period 
became  hysterically  popular,  and  in  Germany,  where 

219 


the  top-heavy  form  of  the  Art  Moderne  prevailed,  has 
there  been  any  healthy  or  well-founded  style. 

In  America  a simple  type  known  as  the  Mission 
school  has  been  adopted  quite  generously,  but  it  has 
represented  not  so  much  a school  of  ornament  as  a 
school  for  the  elimination  of  ornament. 

About  1870  a band  of  artists  in  Vienna,  led  by 
Wagner,  produced  a style  of  design  arising  out  of  the 
use  of  curved  as  opposed  to  straight  lines.  The  un- 
derlying principle  was  based  upon  nature  forms  and 
Gothic  and  Japanese  were  drawn  upon,  and  sinuous 
tree  trunks  and  exaggerated  vines  produced  occa- 
sionally such  pleasing  results  that  in  the  minor  arts 
a great  deal  of  encouragement  was  given  to  the 
movement.  When  applied  to  toilet  articles  and  table, 
desk  and  dress  accessories  or  even  silverware  there 
was  little  to  offend,  but  when  the  same  character  of 
design  was  applied  in  broad  and  emphatic  forms  upon 
the  walls  and  floors,  it  failed.  Little  by  little  Art 
Nouveau  has  been  chastened,  refined  and  simplified 
under  various  “movements,”  Secession,  New  Art  and 
Art  Moderne;  some  of  the  curves  have  been  straight- 
ened out  and  the  weird  nature  forms  are  no  longer 
part  of  the  structural  character  of  furniture  but  are 
utilized  only  as  decorations.  In  Germany  this  new 
development  has  made  great  strides  ; but  not  elsewhere. 

It  is  surprising  when  we  look  back  over  the 


Two  chairs  which  show  modified  L’Art  Nouveau  forms. 


: ' ' 

■ 


MORRIS,  BIEDERMEIER,  L'ART  NOUVEAU 


serious  utterances  of  Eastlake,  whose  book 
was  written  in  1870,  that  any  success  what- 
ever attended  his  efforts.  We  are  aware  of 
the  fact  that  much  was  produced  by  the 
manufacturers  of  Eastlake  furniture  which 
would  have  shocked  the  sensibilities  of  the 
author.  The  Eastlake  school  represented  a 
simplification  of  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean. 

It  was  the  application  of  factory  labor  and 
was  full  of  jig-saw  corners  and  cheap  orna- 
mentation, with  metal  and  tile  panels  and 
squares  inserted,  and  conspicuous  hinges 
and  handles  obviously  introduced  for  deco- 
rative effect.  Sometimes  the  convex  carv- 
ings were  daubed  with  contrasting  paint 
Little  by  little  this  ornamentation  became  so 
vulgar  and  the  operations  of  the  jig-saw  be- 
came so  conspicuous  that  the  Eastlake  style 
died  out. 

While  Eastlake  was  a man  of  education  his  work 
suggested  nothing  higher  than  the  vaulting  ambitions 
of  a boss  carpenter. 

The  work  of  William  Morris  and  his  confreres 
was  important  and  far-reaching,  establishing  as  it  did 
the  craftsman  spirit  in  England.  The  Morris  move- 
ment, so  called  because  Morris  was  the  managing  head 
of  affairs,  employed  the  services  of  men  who  will  live 
forever  in  the  history  of  art. 

William  Morris  was  born  in  England,  March  24, 
1834.  He  died  October  3,  1896.  He  went  to  Oxford 
in  the  fifties  and  beside  him  at  the  examinations  sat 
Burne-Jones,  who  became  his  life-long  friend. 

He  intended  to  study  for  the  church.  He  knew 
nothing  of  art  but  became  interested  while  traveling 


An  early  Morris  design,  “Daisy  and  Columbine.” 

through  Belgium  and  Northern  France  studying  the 
churches  of  Amiens,  Beauvais  and  Chartres.  He  had 
become  acquainted  with  the  work  of  the  pre-Raphael- 
ites,  a brotherhood  cultivating  the  Gothic  arts  and 
preaching  the  theory  of  individualism.  Dante  Gabriel 
Rossetti  was  the  head,  Ford  Madox  Brown,  Holman 
Hunt  and  John  Mullais  were  active  members  assisted 
by  Ruskin’s  writings.  Subsequently  the  coterie  ad- 
mitted William  M.  Rossetti,  James  Collinson,  F.  J. 
Stephens  and  Thomas  Wolner. 

As  a child,  Morris  was  possessed  of  a vivid 
imagination  and  a romantic,  poetic  temperament.  At 
an  early  age  he  became  a poet.  Buildings  had  inter- 
ested Morris  from  his  childhood.  The  Gothic  period 
appealed  to  his  nature,  the  beauties  of  the  Gothic  art 
stimulated  it  and  before  he  was  through  Oxford  he 
had  decided  to  study  architecture  and  Burne-Jones 
was  to  become  an  artist.  Morris  studied  under  George 
Edmond  Street,  an  architect  whose  enthusiasm  for 
the  Thirteenth  Century  made  the  foundation  for  all 
of  Morris’s  work.  Street  was  engaged  at  the  time 
Morris  went  to  him  in  restoring  ancient  churches  and 
designing  Gothic  buildings.  While  never  an  artist  in 
the  broad  sense — in  the  ability  to  depict  the  human 
form — and  while  never  an  architect,  Morris  developed 
along  lines  of  adornment  or  ornamentation.  In  1855 
Burne-Jones  and  Morris  took  lessons  in  painting  under 
Rossetti,  and  in  1856  Rossetti  wrote  enthusiastically 
of  Burne-Jones  predicting  his  fame  as  an  artist,  and 
of  Morris  he  said  that  “in  all  illumination  work  of 
that  kind  he  considered  him  quite  unrivalled.”  When 
he  was  twenty-five  Morris  married  Jane  Burden,  and 
the  house  into  which  they  moved,  known  afterwards  as 
“The  Red  House,”  possessed  many  furnishings  con- 
tributed by  their  artistic  friends. 

A Voysey  design  showing  the  pre-Raphaelite  influence  of 
Morris  and  his  colleagues. 


220 


MORRIS,  BIEDERMEIER,  L’ART  NOUVEAU 


Chrysanthemum  design,  by  William  Morris. 


The  firm  of  Morris,  Marshall,  Faulkner  & Co., 
as  it  was  first  called,  appears  to  have  followed  their 
success  of  this  early  effort  at  decoration.  Rossetti  ex- 
plains that  the  suggestion  to  organize  a firm  was  a 
whim.  “One  evening  a lot  of  us  were  together,  and 
we  got  to  talking  about  the  way  in  which  artists  did 
all  kinds  of  things  in  olden  times — designed  every  kind 
of  decoration  and  most  kinds  of  furniture,  and  some- 
one suggested  that  each  put  down  five  pounds  and 
form  a company.  This  was  done.  Morris  was  elected 
manager  simply  because  he  was  the  only  man  among  us 
who  had  time  and  money  to  spare.” 

The  associates  were  Morris,  Rossetti,  Burne-Jones, 
Madox  Brown,  an  artist  of  reputation,  Webb,  the 
architect  of  the  Red  House, 
also  a designer  of  furniture, 

Peter  Paul  Marshall  and 
Charles  Faulkner. 

* Naturally  their  work 
was  of  the  highest  char- 
acter, covering  mural  deco- 
ration, carving  as  applied 
to  architecture,  stained 
glass,  rtietal  work,  furni- 
ture, fabrics,  stamped 
leathers  and  decorations 
generally,  including  drap- 
eries and  wall-paper.. 

They  affected  full, 
luscious  colorings,  tabooed 
fadey  effects  and  dingy 
colors  were  abhorred  by 
them. 

In  1858  some  of  the 


furniture  made  by  Ford  Madox  Brown  was 
described  by  him : 

“Adapted  to  need  of  solidity  and  of  a 
kind  of  homely  beauty ; above  all,  free  of 
false  display  in  carving,  veneering  and  the 
like.” 

He  tried  to  exhibit  his  furniture  at  the 
Hogarth  Club,  but  the  work  was  rejected 
as  not  fine  art.  But  he  persevered,  and  to- 
day his  masterpieces,  the  frescoes  in  the 
Manchester  Town  Hall,  are  recognized  as 
unequalled. 

Rossetti  describes  a room  which  he  was 
furnishing  for  his  bride  : 

“Our  drawing-room  is  papered  from  a 
design  printed  on  common  brown  packing 
paper.  The  trees  stand  the  whole  height  of 
the  room;  the  stems  and  fruits  are  of  Vene- 
tian red ; the  leaves  are  black ; the  fruit  will 
have  a fine  line  of  yellow  to  indicate  roundness.” 

The  Morris  factory  took  up  finally  printing  on 
wall-papers  or  fabrics,  which,  together  with  the  furni- 
ture, was  based  upon  Gothic  lines  influenced  in  the 
modern  spirit.  Occasionally  his  floral  treatment  was 
classic,  utilizing  the  acanthus  or  flora  of  England.  His 
wood  tones  predominated  as  a background  for  vivid 
colors.  His  designs  were  never  in  straight  lines  and 
were  always  Medieval,  and  even  where  his  motifs  were 
modern  flora  the  colorings  and  technique  were 
Medieval. 

In  1875  the  original  firm  of  Morris,  Marshall, 
Faulkner  & Co.  was  dissolved  and  Morris  carried 
on  the  business  alone,  though  Burne-Jones  and 


A typical  Morris  treatment; 
designed  by  William  Morris  for 
St.  James’s  Palace. 


MORRIS,  BIEDERMEIER,  L’ART  NOUVEAU 


Webb  continued  to  help  him  with  designs  for 
stained  glass  and  furniture.  His  enthusiasm  was 
aroused  in  1877  (in  spite  of  his  great  interest  at  this 
time  in  public  affairs),  by  the  establishing  of  calico 
and  chintz  printing,  the  manufacture  of  brocades  in 
silk  and  silk  and  wool,  a Frenchman  being  got  over 
to  teach  brocade  work.  He  also  began  to  think  of 
tapestry,  though  this  could  not  be  attended  to  till 
later  in  the  year,  and  it  was  when  he  took  Kelm- 
scott  house,  on  the  upper  mall,  Hammersmith,  that  he 
had  a tapestry  loom  put  up  in  his  bedroom,  rising  early 
to  practice  the  art  of  tapestry  weaving.  Carpet  looms 
were  built  in  the  stables  and  here  the  first  Hammer- 
smith carpets  were  made. 

The  most  important  development  perhaps  was  the 
production  of  printed  cotton  goods,  i.  e.,  “Morris’ 
chintzes,”  which  are  more  used  than  any  of  his  other 
fabrics. 

Between  seventy  and  eighty  wall-paper  designs 
and  nearly  forty  chintzes  were  invented  and  carried 
out  by  Morris,  though  if  the  various  colorings  were 
counted  separately  his  designs  would  amount  to  400. 
The  sum  total  of  his  designs  for  paper-hangings, 
chintzes,  woven  stuffs,  silk  damasks,  stamped  velvets, 
carpets,  and  tapestries  (excluding  the  hand-made  car- 
pets and  the  arras  tapestries,  which  were  each  specially 
designed  and  as  a rule  not  duplicated)  which  were 


actually  carried  out,  amounts  to  little  short  of  600,  be- 
sides countless  designs  for  embroidery. 


Modern  Arts-and-Crafts. 


MISSION 


On  the  left,  chair  in  relic-room,  Santa 
Barbara  ; on  the  right,  chair  in  relic- 
room,  Santa  Clara. 


THE  Mission  style 
is  a commercial  style. 
Originally  it  made 
pretense  to  reflect  the  char- 
acter of  the  furniture 
found  in  the  missions  of 
old  Mexico  and  the  coun- 
tries now  New  Mexico, 
Arizona,  Texas  and  California;  but  there  was  never 
any  serious  effort  to  conscientiously  follow  the  style 
which,  after  all,  was  simply  primitive  Gothic — the 
simplest  style  of  carpenter  work  made  for  or  by  the 
missionaries  under  conditions  which  neither  invited 
nor  permitted  the  exercise  of  an  artistic  touch.  It 
was  simple,  crude  furniture  bearing  naturally  the 


influences  of  the  Spanish  architecture  which  con- 
stituted the  environment.  The  woods  used  were 
those  most  easily  manipulated  and  obtained. 

Ponce  de  Leon  discovered  Florida  in  1512;  in 
1513  Balboa  discovered  the  Pacific;  in  1519  Cortez 
set  forth  to  conquer  the  countries  of  Mexico. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  Sixteenth  Century 
Mexico  proper  and  all  the  newly-established  Central 
American  provinces  were  being  flooded  with  mission- 
aries from  Spain ; churches  by  the  hundred  were 
built  and  missions  established  on  every  hand,  in  what 
are  now  the  Mexican  provinces. 

The  colonization  of  Mexico  by  Spain  naturally 
meant  the  introduction  of  Catholic  missions.  In  the 
early  times  the  furnishings  of  these  mission  chapels 


Modern  Mission. 


An  Arts  and  Crafts  Interior,  from  the  German  School. 


were  crude  in  the  extreme,  but  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century  the  missions  gathered  strength  and  prosperity. 

It  has  been  often  claimed  that  the  Mission  style 
was  a purely  American  style.  Unfortunately,  the 
Mission  style  could  have  been  historically  accurate 
were  it  not  that  it  was  at  an  early  age  subjugated 
to  the  exigencies  of  commercialism. 

Lumholtz,  in  his  extraordinary  work  on  Mexico, 
gives  a vast  store  of  illustration  and  data  regarding 
the  work  of  the  Aztecs,  that  dominating  people  who 
possessed  a civilization  in  Mexico  before  the  Spanish 
invasion  under  Cortez,  1519. 

One  finds  a very  good  example  of  this  work  at 
the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  While 
the  furniture  is  probably  not  authentic  in  style,  it  ap- 
proximates the  character  of  furniture  which  even  at 
this  early  date  was  found  by  the  missionaries,  and 
with  slight  alteration,  was  adapted  to  their  ideas  of 
Gothic  structure. 

Mission  ornament  was  necessarily  ecclesiastical 
and  to  present  the  old  Mexican  or  Aztec  decoration 
as  a background  to  the  Mission  furnishings  is  wrong, 
for  whatever  the  charm  of  Aztec  decoration,  we  doubt 
if  the  representative  of  the  Christian  Church  adopted 
it  in  any  particular. 


The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  is 
authority  for  the  statement  that  the  woods  of  Cali- 
fornia covered  a wide  variety,  and  it  is  illogical  to  as- 
sume that  Mission  furniture  was  made  of  any  one  par- 
ticular wood. 

In  Southern  California  what  is  known  as  the 
Pacific  Coast  forest  yields  Douglas  fir,  spruce,  larch, 
western  red  cedar  (arbor  vitae),  hemlock,  redwood 
and  big-tree,  yellow  and  white  pine,  incense,  port  Ox- 
ford and  yellow  cedar,  fir  (balsam),  juniper,  yew, 
cottonwood,  maple,  alder,  birch,  madorna  and  laurel. 

In  Arizona,  Colorado,  New  Mexico  and 
Northern  Mexico,  what  is  known  as  the  Rocky 
Mountain  forest  yields  yellow  pine,  Douglas  fir,  fir 
(balsam),  spruce,  juniper,  pinon  pine,  aspen,  cotton- 
wood and  oak. 

In  other  parts  of  Dower  Mexico  we  find  all  of 
the  sub-tropical  and  tropical  woods,  mahogany,  pine, 
prima-vera,  santa  maria,  logwood,  Mexican  rosewood, 
zebrawood,  mesquite,  aliso  (alder),  ash,  elm,  mul- 
berry, cottonwood,  silk  cotton  tree  or  ceiba,  linden, 
china,  pimienta,  John  Crow  wood,  buttonwood,  black 
maba  and  salm-wood. 

In  Central  America  and  West  Indies,  mahog- 


224 


MISSION 


any,  lignum  vitae,  logwood,  sabicu,  rosewood,  fustic, 
quiebra  hacha,  zebrawood,  calabash,  cocobola,  cork- 
wood, panama,  jaqua,  amarillo,  laurel,  sarsaparilla  and 
cocoa-wood. 

It  is  doubtful  if  any  Spanish  furniture  was 
brought  over  by  the  early  missionaries  for  the  furnish- 
ing of  their  pioneer  structures.  Their  work  was  at- 
tended with  great  hardships,  long  marches  and  strug- 
gles for  a living  and  a foothold  in  the  interior  of  a new 
country.  And  it  is  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  they 
added  to  the  hardships  of  their  progress  any  unneces- 
sary burdens.  The  famous  missions  of  to-day  are  the 
missions  of  California,  and  in  their  construction  the 
builders  utilized  black  oak,  laurel,  juniper,  live  oak,  red 
wood,  scrub  oak,  sycamore  and  walnut. 

The  Arts  and  Crafts  style  has  gradually  become 
a general  term  for  any  furnishings  of  an  unperiodic 
and  unconventional  character.  Originally,  it  stood 
simply  for  individuality.  It  represented  a movement 
that  advocated  the  association  of  art  and  labor  and  had 
its  first  practical  inception  some  forty  years  ago,  when 
Morris  built  his  famous  Red  House,  ignoring  the  pre- 
vailing styles  and  factory  products  and  producing 
through  individuals  an  independence  that  was  effective. 
But  the  work  of  Morris  and  his  confreres  was  sat- 
urated with  the  spirit  of  Medievalism,  hence  the  move- 


ment at  the  very  beginning  presented  a consistency  of 
decorative  thought. 

Morris  developed  along  the  ideas  instilled  by 
Carlyle  and  Ruskin,  who  preached  what  was  prac- 
tically the  socialism  of  art,  expressing  contempt  for 
the  purely  artificial,  the  carving  that  is  plaster,  the 
luster  that  is  varnish,  the  bronze  that  is  sheet  brass, 
the  painted  woods — all  the  dictates  of  commercialism 
or  tradition,  and  in  no  way  representing  an  individual 
ambition.  In  the  beginning  the  movement  was  under- 
taken by  men  who  had  something  worth  saying. 

But  to-day  the  movement  simply  expresses  a con- 
tempt for  all  rules  of  order. 

While  Carlyle  and  Ruskin  advocated  the  applica- 
tion of  individual  thought,  the  movement  would  never 
have  developed  were  it  not  that  the  individual  thought 
was  born  of  culture,  and  followed  with  respect  the  pre- 
Raphaelite  traditions. 

The  doctrine  that  no  man  can  accomplish  any- 
thing worth  accomplishing  if  he  is  not  free  to  express 
all  that  is  in  him,  is  good  theory  if  the  man  is  an  ar- 
tist, but  it  is  dangerous  to  extend  this  encouragement 
to  the  inexperienced  and  uneducated. 

As  a result  the  Arts  and  Crafts  movement  has  be- 
come simply  a cloak  behind  which  one  hides  his  in- 
ability to  produce  a period  style. 


Chair-back  stencil  pattern  of  eighty  years,  a photographic  reproduction  of  the  original  stencil  plate. 


PAINTED  F 

IN  OUR  “Chronology  of  Inlays  and  Marquetry”  we 
covered  the  subject  from  1100,  when  marble  and 
vitreous  paste  were  much  used  in  Southern  Italy, 
to  1779,  when  David  Roentgen,  appointed  by  Marie 
Antoinette  as  “marqueteur  to  the  Queen,”  produced 
extraordinary  work.  The  Dutch  marqueteurs  were 
famous  in  the  middle  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  and 
in  England  as  well  as  France  they  practiced  the  art  of 
intarsia — the  inlaying  of  woods. 

We  have  already  gone  into  the  distinction  between 
intarsia,  marquetry  and  parquetry. 

In  the  Queen  Anne  epoch  the 
designs  were  rich  in  colors,  ob- 
tained through  the  use  of  tropical 
woods,  and  lustrous  with  the  use 
of  ivory  and  mother-of-pearl.  But 
from  the  latter  part  of  the  Eigh- 
teenth Century  down  to  date,  little 
has  been  done  until  the  School  of 
Nancy  (France),  stimulated  by  the 
vogue  of  Art  Nouveau,  introduced 
intarsia  of  quaint  and  unusual 
form. 

Contemporaneously  the  Aus- 
trians, Germans,  French  and  Eng- 
lish went  in  for  this  style  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century. 

After  the  Revolution  many 
types  of  painted  furniture  were 
brought  to  America,  not  only  from 
England,  but  from  the  South  of 
France.  They  were  frequently 
called  japanned  work,  but  the 
term  is  a misnomer,  for  the  decora- 
tion is  usually  an  ordinary  paint 
and  not  lacquer  work  or  japanned 
work,  so  called  because  at  an  early 
period  it  came  from  Japan  and 
China. 

The  Dutch  about  1750  took  up 

On  the  right,  typical  painted  chairs  of 
the  Nineteenth  Century. 


U R N I T U R E 

the  fashion  for  painting  furniture,  much  after  the  style 
of  Vernis-Martin,  painted  under  lacquer,  not  unlike  the 
work  of  carriage  panels. 

All  sorts  of  subjects  were  followed,  from  flowers 
to  ship  scenes,  a type  familiar  even  to  those  of  the 
present  generation  is  the  work  of  the  New  York  stage 
coaches,  sleighs  of  the  old  seventies,  and  snow  chairs, 
which  of  late  have  been  much  sought.  The  work  was 
frequently  of  a highly-artistic  character. 

In  Holland  of  late  years  dealers  have  bought  up 
old  sleighs  by  the  thousands,  utiliz- 
ing the  painted  work  for  cabinet- 
work. Similar  work  was  done  in 
Norway  and  Sweden. 

Lacquered  furniture  was 
brought  into  England  and  France 
in  large  quantities  throughout -the 
Seventeenth  Century,  particularly 
by  the  East  India  Company.  It 
gave  inspiration  to  much  of  the 
work  of  Adam,  Hepplewhite  and 
Sheraton,  who,  however,  made  no 
pretense  to  do  lacquer  work ; they 
simply  applied  good  painted  motifs 
to  certain  parts  of  their  furniture. 

Angelica  Kaufifmann  and  Per- 
golesi  were  particularly  successful, 
and  in  some  cases  their  work  was 
highly  lacquered  or  japanned;  but 
the  hosts  of  unknown  artists  who 
followed  this  style  and  painted 
humbler  types  of  furniture,  bed- 
steads, washstands,  chairs  and 
toilet  articles,  used  common  paint, 
and  some  exceedingly  simple  ef- 
f e c t s , which  finally  deteriorated 
into  stencil  work,  became  popular 
and  continued  in  vogue  well  into 
1830.  Indeed,  the  work  became  so 
common  that  the  broad  splats  were 
introduced  in  chairs  especially  to 
give  space  for  decoration. 


226 


AMERICA’S  MOST  DISTINCTIVE  NATIVE  FURNITURE  TYPE. 


AMERICA’S  MOST  DISTINCTIVE 
FURNITURE  TYPE 


FEW  authorities  have  covered  the  subject  of 
furniture  and  furnishings  in  America  1790  to 
1830.  English  authors  stopped  with  the  early 
Georgian.  They  felt  that  with  the  end  of  Sheraton 
and  beginning  with  the  abortive  efforts  of  Thomas 
Hope,  who  in  some  degree  followed  the  Empire,  there 
was  an  end  to  the 
periods,  and  the  Vic- 
torian age  was  ap- 
proached apologetically. 

Nevertheless  there 
was  a distinctly 
American  type  pro- 
duced early  in  the 
Nineteenth  Century, 
the  outgrowth  of  the 
Empire  form,  simpli- 
fied and  beautified. 

The  Chippendale, 

Sheraton  and  Hepple- 
white  schools  were 
dainty  and  delightful 
examples  of  carving, 
painting  and  inlaying. 

Empire  shapes  were 
more  massive  and  em- 
ployed brass  applique. 

From  the  beginning 
the  Americans  elimi- 
nated the  brass  or 


ormolu  ornamentation,  and  while  there  was  consider- 
able carving  on  the  backs  of  lounges  and  on  the  table 
legs,  little  by  little  this  disappeared  and  only  the  simple 
shapes  remained  with  broad  flat  surfaces  made  beauti- 
ful by  veneers  highly  finished  and  polished.  Prior 
to  the  Nineteenth  Century  veneering  was  an  expensive 

art;  the  wood  was  cut 
by  hand  and  it  was  im- 
possible to  cover  large 
surfaces  excepting  at 
heavy  expense. 

In  the  pieces  of 
William  and  Mary  and 
Queen  Anne  veneer- 
ing was  used  fre- 
quently as  an  economy. 
It  was  applied  very 
often  as  a surface  to 
cheap  woods,  but  the 
veneerings  of  the  late 
Colonial  period  were 
not  applied  because 
cheap,  but  because  of 
the  possibilities  of  a 
high,  lustrous  finish, 
and  the  veneers  were 
often  attached  to  a 
solid  mahogany  base. 

It  is  a mistake  to 
assume,  as  so  many  do, 


229 


Above,  American  chairs  of  the  period  1790-1830;  below,  tables  of  the  same  epoch. 


that  veneer  is  shoddy  and  nndertaken  as  a pretence 
and  deception.  Veneering  is  one  of  the  oldest  arts 
and  in  some  form  or  other,  as  marquetry  or  as  in- 
laying, has  been  practiced  throughout  all  periods. 
Moreover,  it  gives  strength  to  the  frame,  as  best  il- 
lustrated in  Queen  Anne  work  when  frequently  wal- 
nut was  veneered  on  oak  or  yellow  deal. 

Veneers  are  cut  in  two  grades — saw-cut  and 
knife-cut.  The  first  vary  in  thickness  from  1-32  to 
1-16  of  an  inch  and  are  cut  from  a log  with  a large 
circular  saw  producing  twelve  or  fourteen  sheets  to 
the  inch.  Knife-cut  veneers  are  thinner.  Before  the 
introduction  of  machinery  veneers  were  almost  in- 


variably an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick  and  the  decorative 
beauty  of  some  of  the  veneers  used  is  due  to  cutting 
through  the  burrs  or  excrescences  of  the  tree.  The 
“curls”  and  “feathers”  are  produced  by  the  separation 
of  the  heart  at  the  junction  of  a branch  with  the  main 
trunk. 

Mottles  and  figures,  which  are  noted  particularly 
in  maple  and  mahogany,  come  from  certain  condi- 
tions of  the  wood  when  cut  across  the  grain.  Machine- 
made  veneers  opened  up  a wide  field  of  usefulness 
and  constituted  a type  coincident  with  the  beginning 
of  the  Nineteenth  Century. 


CHRONOLOGY  OF  WALL  AND  CEILING  TREATMENTS 

WOODS  USED  AND  RUGS. 

[4500  B.  C.— 1603  A.  D.] 


Egyptian,  4500  B.C. — 324  B.C. 

WALL  treatments  confined  to  frieze  decora- 
tion on  plain  walls;  full  of  gold  and  brilliant 
colors;  ornaments  frequently  hieroglyphics 
and  Egyptian  symbols ; beautifully  hand-painted  stucco 
and  fresco  work  much  in  vogue  ; illustrations  represent- 
ing industries. 

Chinese,  3500  B.C. — 238  B.C. 

Modern  art  described  by  Chambers  1757.  Side- 
walls,  matting  four  feet  high,  the  rest  colored  or  gilt 
paper,  overhung  with  pictures  and  proverbs. 

Assyrian,  2286  B.C. — 608  B.C. 

Stone  work  overwrought  in  bronze  and  gold ; hu- 
man faces  showing  profile ; Assyrian  symbols  used, 
following  largely  the  Egyptian.  Walls  of  King  Solo- 
mon’s temple  were  covered  with  carved  cedar  and 
olive  wood. 

Greek,  1900  B.C.— 168  B.C. 

Fresco  on  plaster  in  strong  colors,  usually  in  deep 
friezes  and  dadoes;  also  stucco,  fresco  and  tempera 
or  distemper  painting  practiced;  borders  frescoed  and 
painted  in  religious  and  legendary  subjects,  full  of 
color;  painting  of  still  life,  city  and  country  shown; 
ceilings  elaborate,  divided  into  geometric  sections ; 
mosaics  brought  to  perfection. 

Roman,  753  B.C.— 455  B.C. 

Similar  to  Greek. 

Pompeiian,  100  B.C. — 455  A.D. 

Following  the  Greek  and  Roman  style,  but  walls 
were  also  completely  covered  with  paintings,  some- 
times divided  into  panels  with  small  pictures  and  fine 
mosaics ; sometimes  wall  space  divided  into  dado,  mid- 
dle and  upper  section  and  ornamented  with  delicate 
garlands,  fruit,  masks.  In  England  the  Adam  style 
almost  reproduced  the  Pompeiian. 

Byzantine,  328 — 1451. 

Closely  related  to  Roman.  Magnificent  in  tiles, 
largely  Oriental. 

Romanesque — Affected  materially  by  the  Byzan- 
tine and  Saracenic.  Tiles  and  tile  treatment;  stained 
glass  windows  recorded  525  A.D.  Tapestries  made  by 
Flemish  weavers,  1170  A.D.  In  the  Eleventh  Century 
Cordova  leathers,  superbly  gilded  and  painted  were 
made  in  Flanders.  The  term  was  also  applied  to 
similar  leathers  produced  in  Portugal,  France  and 
Italy. 

Gothic,  1100—1550. 

Beginning  with  1200  walls  of  houses  were  wain- 


scoted and  painted,  often  decorated  with  romantic, 
biblical  or  legendary  subjects.  In  the  Thirteenth  Cen- 
tury walls  were  treated  with  tiling  forms  called  Cos- 
matic  mosaic,  and  frequently  hung  with  tapestries. 
Wall-paper  used  prior  to  1500  was  simply  pictures  on 
paper  and  was  hung  like  banners  and  not  stuck  to  the 
wall. 

About  1500  large  hall  of  house  was  generally  sit- 
ting-room, reception-room  and  dining-room  combined. 
Raftered  ceilings  were  common. 

Italian  Renaissance,  1400 — 1643. 

Discoveries  of  the  stuccoes  of  ancient  Rome 
aroused  Italian  architects  to  the  spirit  of  emulation 
and  Roman  and  Greek  mural  work  was  generally 
adopted.  Ground  colors  were  laid  on  while  the  stucco 
was  wet.  Raphael  and  his  followers  applied  themselves 
to  wall  decoration.  Superb  friezes  and  panels,  the 
best  the  world  ha§  ever  seen,  was  the  result.  Both 
wainscoting  and  rich  tapestries,  leathers,  gold  and  silk 
fabrics  were  liberally  used  in  all  the  phases  of  the 
Renaissance.  Marbleized  paper  called  “domino”  was 
made  in  Italy  during  the  Fifteenth  Century  in  small 
squares  and  used  on  walls. 

French  Renaissance,  1500 — 1643. 

Covering  practically  the  same  characteristics  as 
the  Italian  Renaissance,  years  of  great  magnificence 
embracing  the  reigns  of : 

Francis  I,  1515-1549. 

Henry  II,  1549-1559. 

Francis  II,  1559-1560. 

Charles  IX,  1560-1574. 

Henry  III,  1574-1589. 

Henry  IV,  1589-1610. 

Louis  XIII,  1610-1643. 

The  domino  papers  of  Italy  were  improved  and 
instead  of  being  marble  or  plain  papers  were  printed 
in  figures,  and  by  1700  there  was  hardly  a house  in 
Paris  that  did  not  utilize  “domino  papers.” 

Continuation  of  the  use  of  fabric  side-walls,  rich 
paneling,  stuccoed  ceilings,  carvings,  rich  paintings. 
Louis  XIV,  1643-1715,  side-walls  frequently  paneled 
in  fabric.  Ceilings  painted  or  in  rich  plaster. 

Elizabethan,  1558 — 1603. 

Reflected  the  Italian  spirit.  Moldings  were  much 
used  and  strap-work  carvings,  wood  side-walls  clear  to 
the  ceiling,  stucco  ceilings.  Oak  prevailed  Period 
lasted  from  1500  to  1660.  Painted  linens  and  hang- 
ings, tapestries,  embroideries. 


231 


CHRONOLOGY  OF  WALL  AND  CEILING  TREATMENTS 

[1603—1800.] 


Jacobean,  1603 — 1649. 

Continued  the  Elizabethan  style.  Still  the  age  of 
oak.  Side-walls  of  oak  hut  in  some  of  the  finest  resi- 
dences the  ceilings  were  beamed.  Side-walls  hung  with 
tapestries.  Magnificent  stuccoes.  Ceilings  frequently 
of  the  most  elaborate  type,  often  colored.  Heavy  re- 
lief work,  massive  reproductions  of  panels  full  of 
heraldic  devices  and  in  small  rooms  chintzes  from  In- 
dia were  used.  Cotton  and  linen  embroideries  were 
hung  on  the  wall.  Embossed  and  gilded  linens,  cloths 
of  gold,  painted  cloths. 

Louis  XIV,  1643—1715. 

Gobelin  Tapestry  Works  became  royal  property. 
Beauvais  Tapestry  Works  established.  Richest  silks 
used  on  the  walls,  damask,  brocade  and  embroidery. 
Magnificent  ceilings,  paneled,  painted  and  stuccoed. 
Magnificent  Chinese  papers  popular  for  walls. 

Louis  XV,  1715—1774. 

Chinese  characteristics  introduced.  Wealth  of  his 
predecessor  continued.  Paneling  rich  in  gold  and 
bronze.  1746 — first  factory  established  in  France  for 
the  manufacturing  of  wall-paper  squares.  French 
Ministry,  1759,  authorized  the  manufacture  of  printed 
linens,  and  by  1789  one  hundred  factories  were  in 
operation,  some  of  them  working  from  copper  plates. 
Wood  side-walls  disappeared.  Everything  rich  in 
fabrics. 

Louis  XVI,  1774—1792. 

Continuation  of  fabric  effects  following  the  dain- 
tier classic  feeling ; ceilings  beautifully  hand  painted, 
cleverest  artists  of  the  day  contributing  to  the  work. 
Walls  paneled  in  fabrics,  surrounding  the  same ' 
with  elaborate  compositions  of  plaster  and  molding 
work.  White  and  gold  conspicuous.  Continuous  rolls 
of  wall-paper  were  undertaken  in  1790. 

In  1787  we  find  a decree  of  the  king  declaring  that 
the  art  of  painting  and  printing  paper  used  in  furnish- 
ings were  a dependence  of  the  governing  board  of  the 
Merchants-Papetiers-Dominotiere-Feuilletinere,  which 
shows  that  the  term  “domino”  still  clung. 

Empire,  1804 — 1814. 

Walls  stronger  in  gold  effects.  Continuation  of 
fabric  treatment  with  the  added  use  of  bronze  and  gold 
in  profusion.  Walls  hand  painted  on  plaster  or  canvas. 


Charles  II,  1660 — 1685. 

James  II,  1685 — 1689. 

William  and  Mary,  1689 — 1702. 

Wainscoted  side-walls  began  to  come  lower  in 
height  and  by  Charles  IPs  time  began  to  disappear ; 
the  French  method  of  treating  walls  in  fabric  came 
in.  The  ceilings,  however,  continued  to  be  of  magnifi- 
cent proportions,  elaborate  in  stucco  and  relief  work 
divided  into  panels,  circles,  hexagons  and  rhomboids, 
borders  enriched  with  flowers  and  fruits  similar  to 
the  extraordinary  carvings  of  Grinling  Gibbons. 
Borders  were  often  flat  ornaments  of  Greek  or  Roman 
design.  Ceilings  were  magnificent  reproductions  fol- 
lowing the  Renaissance,  also  prolific  with  goddesses, 
saints,  muses  and  Cupids. 

Queen  Anne,  1702 — 1714. 

Frequently  side-walls  followed  the  French  style. 
The  custom  of  paneling  the  side-walls  was  partially 
kept  up.  Chimneypieces,  however,  only  went  half- 
way up  the  wall.  White  woodwork  was  affected. 
Walls  were  often  without  any  paneling  or  wainscot- 
ing and  covered  with  squares  of  Chinese  wall-paper 
or  painted  directly  on  or  hung  with  fabrics,  particu- 
larly prints. 

Colonial,  1700—1800. 

The  American  colonies  adopted  the  European 
styles.  White  woodwork  was  popular,  little  wainscot- 
ing was  attempted  about  1690.  In  1749  Isaac  Ware 
wrote : “The  decoration  of  an  American  room  is  of 
three  kinds — first,  where  it  is  coated  with  the  plaster 
material  wrought  into  ornamental  details ; second, 
where  covered  by  wainscot,  and  third,  where  hung  with 
silks,  tapestries  or  paper,”  for  in  that  year  dealers  in 
America  were  advertising  “to  hang  rooms  with  paper 
or  fabrics  in  the  very  newest  fashions.”  Indeed, 
Charles  Hargraves  advertised  wall-papers  in  Philadel- 
phia in  1745,  and  only  a few  years  later  Peter  Fleeson 
was  making  paper-hangings  in  squares,  corner  of 
Fourth  and  Chestnut  Streets,  Philadelphia.  Nantucket, 
Portsmouth  and  St.  Johnsbury,  Vt.,  have  yielded  to 
the  collectors  some  exquisite  examples  of  wall  decora- 
tions. Thomas  Hancock  in  1757  wrote  to  an  English 
friend  to  send  him  some  paper-hangings  showing  a 
great  variety  of  birds,  animals,  fruits  and  flowers  and 
he  adds  to  his  letter:  “I  think  these  papers  are  hand- 
some ; better  than  painted  walls.”  Fabrics  were  used 
on  the  walls  contemporaneously  with  the  European 
use  of  them. 


232 


CHRONOLOGY  of  RUGS  ACCORDING  to  PERIODS 


TH  E chronological  or 
the  period  uses  of 
rugs  is  in  no  way 
confusing  if  one  knows  the 
history  of  rugs.  For  cen- 
turies the  only  rugs  in  use 
were  Oriental  rugs,  and 
when  the  making  of  Orien- 
tal rugs  was  introduced 
into  Europe  by  the  Sara- 
cens, Ninth  and  Tenth  Cen- 
turies, the  patterns  con- 
tinued to  be  Oriental.  The 
history  of  Oriental  rugs 
goes  back  to  Assyria, 
Egypt,  Old  Persia,  ancient 
Greece  and  Rome. 

In  711  when  the  Sara- 
cens began  swarming  into  Spain  and  later  when  they 
settled  along  the  southern  countries  of  Europe,  par- 
ticularly Sicily,  they  took  their  looms  with  them.  We 
find  as  early  as  900  A.D.  traces  of  Oriental  art  as 
far  north  as  Scandinavia  and  in  later  days,  the  Thir- 
teenth and  Fourteenth  Centuries,  we  have  a distinct 
type  of  Oriental  rug  known  as  Hispano-Moresque, 
and  a little  later  Portuguese-Persian  was  evolved. 


We  have  record  also  of  looms  set  up  by  the 
Saracens  in  Palermo,  Twelfth  Century ; Poland, 
Twelfth  Century;  Venice,  Fourteenth  Century. 

During  the  reign  of  Henry  IV  of  France,  1600, 
rug  weaving  was  undertaken.  The  first  European  in- 
fluence developed  in  design  character,  and  right  here 
it  is  well  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  we  must  differen- 
tiate between  a tapestry  and  a specific  floor  covering. 

The  term  carpet  was  one  which  in  the  early  days 
applied  to  hangings,  and  the  references  to  ancient  car- 
pets which  we  frequently  find  in  literature  have  doubt- 
less reference  to  tapestry.  The  French  term  tapissier 
means  to  carpet,  to  hang  or  cover  with  tapestry;  tapis, 
a carpet ; tapete,  carpet  or  tapestry.  Hence  when  we 
read  of  the  Flemish,  French,  English  or  Italian  “car- 
pets” of  an  early 
period,  we  must 
remember  that 
the  term  was  sy- 
nonymous with 
tapestry.  An 
Englishman  to- 
day who  carries 
a traveling 
shawl  speaks  of 
it  as  his  “rug.” 


THE  PERIOD  USES  OF  RUGS 

The  making  of  rugs  in  Asia  goes  back  to  the  Prehistoric  Ages. 


English  Romanesque  1066 

French  Romanesque  700-1100 

Gothic  Early  Period  1100-1500 

Late  Gothic  and  Italian  Renaissance  1400 

French  Renaissance  1500 

Francis  I,  Henry  II,  Louis  XIII. 

English  Renaissance  1500 

Henry  XIII. 

Flemish  Renaissance  1507 

Spanish  Renaissance  1500 

Portuguese  Renaissance  1500 

German  Renaissance  1550 

Elizabethan  1558 

Jacobean,  English  1603-1650 

James  I 1603-1625 

Charles  I 1625-1649 

Cromwellian  1653-1659 

Charles  II  1660-1689 

William  and  Mary  1689-1702 

Queen  Anne  1702-1714 

Georgian  Period  1714-1820 

Chippendale-Sheraton-Hepplewhite  and  Adam. 

American  Colonial  Period  1727-1820 

Henry  IV,  French  1589-1610 

Louis  XIV  1643 

Louis  XV  1715 

Louis  XVI  • 1774 

Directoire  1795 

Empire  1804 


Oriental  rugs  from  Asia  or  of  Spanish  origin  the  results 
of  colonization. 


From  1100  to  1400  the  Mediterranean  merchants  estab- 
lished rug  industries  in  Spain,  Sicily  and  Venice  and  supplied 
Europe  with  Oriental  carpets  of  European  manufacture,  be- 
sides the  vast  quantities  of  native  examples  imported  from 
Anatolia,  India  and  Persia;  all  of  Oriental  design. 


Early  in  the  Seventeenth  Century  Shah  Abbas  introduced 
Renaissance  characteristics  in  the  Persian  rugs  of  his  court,  in 
order  to  demonstrate  his  antagonism  to  the  influences  of  Mon- 
gol character.  Contemporaneously  the  manufacture  of  Turkish 
carpets,  but  of  European  design  was  introduced  at  Arras, 
Fontainebleau,  Tours  and  La  Savonnerie.  Results  of  prac- 
tical productions  began  1620,  and  by  1660  this  manufacture 
was  well  developed.  Frequently  heavy  wall  tapestries  were 
utilized  for  the  floor.  Prior  to  1745  English-made  carpets 
were  crude  products  similar  to  ingrain.  In  1745  a cut  pile 
carpet  called  Wilton  was  first  produced.  In  1749  the  Brus- 
sels loom  was  erected  in  England.  During  Louis  XV  and 
the  period  of  Chippendale  Chinese  rugs  were  much  used. 


233 


C H R O N O 


LOGY  OF  WOODS 

Inlay  or  Marquetry  woods  are  in  italics. 


ENGLISH. 

Applewood. 

Ash. 

Beech. 

Birch. 

Bog  or  Black  Oak. 

Brown  Oak. 

Cedar. 

Cherry. 

Chestnut. 

Elm. 

Holly. 

Lime  or  Linden. 

Maple. 

Oak  (English). 

Oak  (Pollard). 

Pearwood. 

Planewood  (Buttonwood  or  Lace- 
wood). 

Sycamore. 

Walnut. 

Willow. 

Yew. 

EUROPEAN. 

Austrian  Oak. 

Baltic  Oak. 

Birch. 

Black  Sea  or  Circassian  Walnut. 
Boxwood. 

Cedar. 

Cherry. 

Chestnut. 

Cypress. 

Elm. 

French  Walnut. 

French  Oak. 

German  Oak. 

Holly. 

Italian  Oak. 

Lime  or  Linden. 

Maple. 

Olive. 


Pearwood. 

Pine. 

Polish  Oak. 

Planewood. 

Riga  Oak  (Russian). 

Spanish  Oak. 

Sycamore  (Colored  varieties  called 
Hairwood,  Mousewood,  Grey- 
wood). 

Walnut  (Italian). 

Willow. 

ASIATIC. 

Andaman  Redzvood. 

Cedar. 

Calamander  (Blackstripe,  India). 
Cherry. 

Coromandel  (Yellow  Ebony,  In- 
dia). 

Ebony  (India). 

Green  Ebony  (India). 

Indian  Mahogany. 

Ironwood  (India). 

Pearwood. 

Porcupine,  Pheasant  or  Partridge. 
Rosezvood. 

Satinwood. 

Teak  (Pheasant  or  Graniteware). 
Zeen  Oak  (Ind  ia). 

WEST  INDIAN  AND  SOUTH 
AMERICAN. 

Angelique  (Mahogany). 

Cedar. 

Cocobola. 

Greenheart. 

Green  Ebony. 

Kingwood  or  Violet. 

Lanceivood. 

Lignum-Vitae. 

Mahogany. 

Mora  (Mahogany). 

Purpleivood. 

Rosewood. 


Sabicu  (Mahogany). 

Santa  Maria  (Mahogany). 

Santine  (Mahogany). 

Satin  Walnut. 

Satinwood. 

Snakewood  or  Leopard. 

Tulip. 

Yellow  Oak. 

Zebra. 

AMERICAN. 

Ash. 

Basswood  (Lime). 

Beech. 

Birch. 

Bird’s  Eye  Maple  (Sugar  Maple). 
Black  Walnut. 

Butternut. 

Cedar. 

Cherry. 

Chestnut. 

Cypress. 

Elm. 

Hickory. 

Holly. 

Live  Oak. 

Maple. 

Pine. 

Poplar. 

Planewood  (Buttonwood  or  Lace- 
wood). 

Red  Oak. 

Redwood. 

Sycamore. 

Walnut  (many  varieties). 

White  Oak. 

Whitewood  (Known  as  Tulip,  Yel- 
low Poplar  and  Canarywood). 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

African  Oak. 

African  Teak. 

African  or  Golden  Walnut. 

Citron  (Africa). - 
Mahogany  (Africa). 


INTARSIA  OR  MARQUETRY. 

INTARSIA — Tarsia  from  the  Latin,  interserrere,  to  insert,  applied  to  the  inlaying  of  woods.  When  in  metal,  as  practiced  at  Damascus,  called 
damascening.  Marquetry — Synonymous  term  adopted  by  the  French  from  marquerter,  to  spot,  to  mark.  Parquetry  applies  to  coarse  work 
for  floorings  or  wainscotings.  The  process  of  inlaying  goes  back  to  the  early  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  methods  on  metal,  ivory,  marble  and  wood. 


1100 — Intarsia  of  marble  and  vitreous  pastes 
produced  in  Southern  Italy. 

1259 — Beautiful  examples  of  inlaying  produced 
in  Siena. 

1300 — Germans  worked  in  inlays,  and  beauti- 
ful examples  were  brought  from  India, 
Arabia,  Egypt,  Venice  and  Spain. 

1331 — Famous  stalls  inlaid  with  ebony,  box- 
wood, walnut  and  white  poplar  were  pro- 
duced by  the  Siennese  and  reached  a high 
degree  of  artistic  merit. 

1416 — The  Due  du  Berri’s  furniture  was  il- 
luminated with  pictures  in  intarsia,  doubt- 
less of  Italian  workmanship. 

1490 — Exquisite  work  done  in  France. 

1500 — Germans  understood  intarsia  work  in 
colored  woods. 

1550 — Italians  revived  the  ancient  styles  of 
marquetry  and  the  furniture  of  this  Latin 
Renaissance  or  Baroque  Period  was  often 
of  marquetry  arranged  in  the  form  of  ac- 
tual pictures.  Sometimes  furniture  was 
also  painted,  gilded  or  decorated  with  oil 
paintings. 

1550 — Ebony  and  ivory  work  successfully  un- 
dertaken in  Germany.  Fine  examples  in 
Mosque  of  Cordova,  Spain. 

1550-1650 — Dutch  marquetry,  highly  artistic, 
employing  Asiatic  woods  in  great  number. 
Rich  chairs  were  commonly  decorated 
with  marquetry,  usually  huge  tulips  and 
birds. 

1600 — -Marquetry  made  itself  felt  in  the 
Netherlands  and  Flemish  artists  copied 
the  work  in  precious  woods. 

1603 — Some  excellent  work  was  done  by  Eng- 
lishmen during  the  Jacobean  Period. 
Jean  Mace  of  Blois  is  thought  to  be  the 


first  to  practice  intarsia  in  France  under 
the  name  of  marquetrie.  He  learned  the 
art  in  the  Netherlands.  French  designs 
usually  ran  to  landscapes,  ruins  and 
classic  scenes. 

1650 — Under  Louis  XIV  Dutch  marqueteurs 
were  employed  to  teach  the  art  to  French- 
men. The  name  Boulle  has  become  indis- 
solubly connected  with  the  application  of 
copper  and  tortoise  shell  mosaics  upon 
wood.  The  Portuguese  carried  on  the 

work  in  the  Seventeenth  Century,  em- 
ploying metal  plates  cut  and  pierced  in 
elaborate  and  fanciful  patterns  fastened 
upon  black  wood,  the  beginning  of  Boulle 
work,  which  was  characterized  by  the 
sinking  of  the  metal  into  the  wood. 

1672 — Andre  Charles  Boulle,  born  in  1642,  was 
granted  apartments  in  the  Louvre  as 
“joiner,  marqueter,  gilder  and  chiseler.” 
Boulle’s  work  covered  Louis  XIV  and  XV 
Periods.  J.  F.  Oeben  was  famous  during 
the  Louis  XV  Period,  also  J.  Henry 
Riesener  and  Chas.  Cressent. 

1700 — Marquetry  fashionable  in  England  in 
the  Queen  Anne  Period.  The  designs 
were  rich  in  foliage  with  bands  of  ivory 
and  mother-of-pearl. 

1760 — Satinwood  used  for  inlaid  lines  of  Sher- 
aton furniture;  also  holly,  tulipwood,  de- 
cidedly reddish,  and  later  lancewood. 

1770 — All  of  the  tropical  woods  utilized  by  the 
inlayers.  Wonderful  effects  obtained  by 
David  Roentgen,  German,  who  secured 
shadings  by  subjecting  woods  to  various 
degrees  of  hot  sand  baths. 

1779 — David  Roentgen  appointed  by  Marie 
Antoinette  as  marqueteur  to  the  Queen. 


FINISH. 

1200 — Gothic  and  early  Renaissance  furniture 
was  left  untouched.  As  the  forms  of  fur- 
niture became  more  ornamental  a deep 
colored  varnish  was  applied  or  the  wood 
was  much  oiled  and  waxed. 

1500 — Amber  was  known  from  time  immemo- 
rial. It  was  a recognized  commercial 
article  in  the  Sixteenth  Century,  and  it  is 
probable  that  it  was  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  varnish  for  violins. 

1600 — The  gums  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
varnishes  coming  from  Asia,  South  Amer- 
ica and  the  West  Indies,  there  was  prob- 
ably no  commercial  supply  for  the  gen- 
eral manufacture  of  varnishes  until  late 
in  the  Seventeenth  Century.  Unquestion- 
ably varnishes  have  been  made  at  almost 
all  periods,  but  they  were  rare.  In  small 
quantities  they  were  used  for  jewel  boxes, 
violins,  musical  instruments.  Japan  and 
China  have  long  been  skilled  in  the  art. 

1700 — Towards  the  close  of  1600  the  craze  for 
Oriental  ware  induced  Louis  XIV  to  enact 
laws  to  protect  native  industries. 

1710 — In  1710  the  French  japanners  claiming 
that  the  lacquers  and  japans  were  equal 
to  the  Asiatic  ware,  asked  for  protection, 
and  throughout  this  period  there  is  con- 
stant reference  to  lacquered  tables, 
screens,  chairs,  lacquered  trunks,  panels 
fans  and  furniture. 

1733 — Imitations  of  lacquer  found  fame  in 
the  Netherlands  through  Huygens,  and 
contemporaneously  in  France  through 
Martin  (Vernis-Martin)  Royal  factory, 
1748. 


234 


INDEX 


Note: — The  innumerable  racial  names,  divisions  and  nationalities,  not  indexed  hereunder,  will  be  found 
comprehensively  grouped  under  the  charts,  “Developments  of  Nations,'’  pages  3 to  6. 


Acanthus,  60,  73 

Adam,  72,  154,  161*,  176,  184,  184b*,  187*, 
188*,  189*  190a*  196*,  197,  198a*, 

199*,  200*,  201,  202* 

Age  of  Bronze,  15 

Age  of  Copper,  15 

Age  of  Iron,  15 

Age  of  Oak,  8,  118 

Age  of  Stone,  15 

Age  of  Walnut,  8,  80,  118 

Ainos,  50 

Alberti,  77 

Alhambraic,  8,  39 

Amaranth,  157 

Animal  Forms,  15,  17,  24,  27,  28,  45 

Anthemion,  60,  73 

Arabesque,  130 

Arabian,  7,  39,  40*,  41 

Arabic,  130 

Arras  Tapestries,  222 

Artists  and  Architects,  138 

Art  Moderne,  219 

Art  Nouveau,  8,  72,  217*,  218*,  219* 

Arts  and  Craft,  219,  222*,  223,  224*,  225* 
Asiatic,  38,  39 
Assyrian,  3,  7,  16*,  17 
Aztec,  10,  224* 

Babel,  144,  147 
Babylonian,  3,  7,  16*,  17 
Barbaric  Design,  9 
Baroque,  123,  124* 

Bartolomeo,  77 
Bartolozzi,  176 
Beauvais,  132,  150 
Beetle,  15 

Beidermeier,  216,  217,  218,  219 
Berain,  132,  133,  137* 

Bird  Forms,  27,  28,  49,  137 
Bonchon,  125 
Borgognone,  77 
Botticelli,  77 
Bouchardon,  139,  147 
Boucher,  139,  144,  147,  150 
Boudichon,  168 
Boulle,  133,  150,  154 
Boullognes,  132 
Brass  Mountings,  163 
Erocatelles,  140 
Bronze,  28,  133,  145,  150 
Brown,  Ford  Madox,  220 
Bruges  Satins,  125 
Brunelleschi,  77,  78 
Bulb  Foot,  ill 
Buonarroti,  77 


Bureau,  128,  217 
Burne-Jones,  219,  220 
Butterfly  Table,  212 
Byzantine,  4,  7,  27,  29,  30,  35 

C Curve,  103,  105 
Cabriole  Leg,  111,  169,  180 
Calico  Printing,  222 
Campbell,  176 
Candle  Stand,  211* 

Cane,  119,  124,  169 
Cane  Seats,  105,  189,  212 
Card  Tables,  157,  176 
Carpets,  222 

Carter,  Edward,  123,  176 
Carter.  J„  176 
Cedar,  117,  119 
Ceilings,  123,  126a*  128* 

Celtic,  3,  7,  24*,  25 
Chaise  Cacquetoire,  105 
Chaise  Lounge,  137* 

Chaise  Perroquet,  105 
Chaldean,  7 

Chambers,  Sir  William,  176,  177,  183, 
185 

Charles  I,  105 

■Charles  II,  8,  104,  117,  121,  202 
Charles  IX,  83,  124 
Cheshire,  194 
Chests,  57,  212 

Chinese,  7,  38,  45,  47*,  133,  147,  182,  183 
Chinese  Ornament,  141,  144 
Chintzes,  110 

Chippendale,  161,  176,  177*,  178*,  179, 
180*,  181*,  182*  -4185,  188*  201 
Christian,  Early,  31 
Chronology  of  Decoration  by  Centuries, 
7,  8 

Chronology  of  Rugs,  233 
Chronology  of  Wall  and  Ceiling  Treat- 
ment, 227,  231 
Chronology  of  Woods,  234 
Cipriani,  176,  185,  191,  197,  198*,  201 
Circle,  27,  Si,  ,34 
Clarke,  Sir  Purdon,  217 
Claw-and-Bali  Foot,  111,  112,  169,  180 
Clocks,  110,  119,  189 
Colbert,  125,  132,  137,  167 
Colonial,  8,  169,  175,  203,  206*,  208,  209*, 
211*,  213*  214a*,  217,  228 
Colored  Glass  Windows,  57 
Color  Printing,  166 
Columbani,  176,  201 
Commonwealth,  105 
Composite,  7 
Connecticut  Chests,  204 


Console,  157 
Constantinople,  31 
Copeland,  176,  180 
Copper,  57,  78 
Cordova  Leathers,  89,  97 
Corinthian,  7 
Couches,  15,  19 
Coypel,  132 
Cradle  Chair,  212 
Crane,  Walter,  219 
Cromwellian,  8,  99,  104,  176 
Crown,  49,  60 
Crunden,  176,  180,  201 
Crusades,  7,  34 
Cupboard,  222* 

Cylinder  Printing,  168 

Dagobert,  27 

Damasks,  28,  75,  130,  133 

Dangon,  125 

Darley,  176,  179 

David,  161 

Da  Vinci,  77 

Day  Bed,  201* 

De  Cuvilles,  144 

De  La  Londe,  154 

De  La  Salle,  125,  140,  141 

Del  Sarto,  77 

De  Maintenon,  137 

De  Medici,  Catherine,  83,  124 

Derbyshire  Chair,  105* 

Design  Characteristics,  13 
Development  of  Floral  Types,  72*,  73 
Development  of  Mechanical  Textile  De- 
sign, 64 

Development  of  Nations,  3,  6 

Development  of  Textile  Weaving,  35 

Diamond-paned  Windows,  112 

Dimity,  113,  125,  130 

Directoire,  8,  161,  163 

Directorate,  161 

Domino,  168 

Donato,  77 

Doric,  7 

Dossier,  57 

Double-seated  Chairs,  117 
Dove,  27 

Dragon,  25,  27,  50 
Draught  Chair,  169 
Drop  Handles,  117 
Du  Barry,  150 
Duchess  Chair,  189 
Duplessis,  144 
Diirer,  77,  123 
Dutch,  6,  8 


t 


235 


INDEX 


Four-post  Bed,  212* 

Fra  Angelico,  77 
Fra  Giaconda,  77 
Fragonard,  147 
Francis  I,  86,  86a* 

Francis  II,  83 
French,  3,  4,  6 
French  Carpets,  145 
French-Flemish,  117 
French  Gothic,  7,  53,  54*,  61,  62* 
French  Renaissance,  6,  8,  77,  83>,  84*, 
85 

French  Romanesque,  27,  31 
Frieze  Decoration,  15 
Friezes,  188 
Fustians,  125 

George  I,  II,  III,  176 

Georgia,  31 

Georgian,  8,  175,  176 

Germain,  144 

German  Empire,  7,  218 

German  Gothic,  52,  53,  61,  63*,  68* 

German  Renaissance,  8,  77,  90 

German  Romanesque,  31,  33* 

Gesso  Work,  198 
Giacomo,  77 
Gibb,  122,  123,  130*,  176 
Gibbons,  Grinling,  104,  122,  123,  128*, 
176 

Gillow,  176 

Glass,  31,  209  «■ 

Glass  Knobs,  185 
Gobelin,  8,  132 

Gothic,  6,  7,  51*,  52*,  53,  54a*,  55,  60*, 
61,  70a* 

Gothic  Fabric  Design,  64*,  65 
Goths,  27 

Graeco-Pelasgic,  7,  22 
Grandfather’s  Clocks,  110 
Grecian,  3,  7,  18,  19,  23 
Greek  Ornament,  19* 

Group  System  of  Classifying  Textiles, 
34,  64 

Guadameciles,  97 
Guilloche,  22 


Flighboy,  213* 

Hispano-Saracenic,  31 
Hogarth,  176 
Hogarth  Chair,  169,  206* 

Holbein,  103,  123* 

FI  ope,  Thomas,  176,  204,  219 
Idorsehair  Coverings,  189 
Huet,  150 

Flunt,  Holman,  220 
Flyvart,  132 

Ince,  176,  179 
India  Prints,  110 

Indian,  7,  18,  39,  45,  46*,  50*,  112,  166*, 
167* 

Inlaid  Floors,  112 
Inlays,  83 

Inscriptional  Work,  40 
Intarsia  and  Marquetry,  23,  80*,  83 
Interlacements,  27,  34 
Interlacing  Circles,  28 
Interlacing  Crosses,  28 
Intersection  Design,  27 
Ionic,  7 
Islam,  39 

Italian,  4,  6,  70,  75,  78* 

Italian  Chairs,  83 
Italian  Gothic,  53,  61,  67*,  74*,  76 
Italian  Renaissance,  8,  77*,  78,  79*, 
81*,  82*,  83 

Jacobean,  8,  99,  100*,  101*,  109*,  113, 
117,  129*  ; -r 

Jacobean  Chests,  99* 

Jacquard,  125 
James  I,  105,  129* 

James  II,  117 

Jamnitzer,  123 

Japanese,  7,  45,  48*,  50,  183 

Japanned,  118,  226 

Jeffersonian  Period,  175,  211 

John  of  Padua,  77,  99,  123 

Johnson,  Thomas,  17(5,  180 

Jones,  Inigo,  103,  122*,  123,  130*,  133 

Jones,  W.,  176,  201 

Jouy,  Prints,  141*,  104*,  166*,  167* 


Dutch  Embroideries,  95 
Dutch  Gothic,  53 

Eagle  Head,  18 
Eagle-headed  Lions,  18 
Eagles,  17,  28 

Early  Christian,  27,  31,  35,  37* 

East  India  Goods,  175 

East  India  Trading  Co.,  89,  110 

Eastlake,  219,  220,  222* 

Ebenists  and  Inlayers,  138  , 

Ebony,  118,  124,  163 
Edict  of  Nantes,  104 
Edwards,  176,  177,  179 
Egyptian,  3,  7,  14,  15 
Egyptian  Damasks,  125 
Eight-legged  Chair,  113 
Elizabethan,  8,  99,  100*,  102*,  104*, 
106*,  107*,  108*,  118 
Elizabethan  Embroideries,  99* 
Embroideries,  22,  23,  28,  31 
Empire.  72,  158b*,  161,  162*,  163*,  165* 
Enamels,  28 

English  Gothic,  6,  7,  8,  53,  58*,  59*,  61 
English  Renaissance,  6,  8,  77,  99,  109*, 
122* 

English  Romanesque,  27 
Escutcheons,  117 
Essex,  194 
Etamines,  125 
Etruscan,  3,  7 

Fabrics,  28,  56,  61,  65,  71,  112,  126*, 
127*,  140*,  141*,  206 

Fabrics  of  the  Sixteenth  and  Seven- 
teenth Centuries,  140 
Fabrics  of  Northern  Italy,  75 
Falcon,  125,  128 
Fan-shaped  Chairs,  105 
Fan-shaped  Ornaments,  15 
Farthingdale  Chair,  119* 

Feathers,  15,  137 
Feradines,  125 
Field  Bed,  205,  212* 

Fig  Tree,  17 
Filatrices,  125^ 

Fir  Cones,  18 

Flambeau,  163 

Flanders,  8 

Fleeson,  210 

Flemings,  83 

Flemish,  5,  6,  7 

Flemish  Dutch,  6,  117 

Flemish  Renaissance,  77,  89,  91* 

Flemish  Strapwork,  88 

Fleur-de-lis,  53,  60 

Floral  Motifs,  28,  72 

Florentine  Renaissance,  8,  77 

Floriated  Forms,  24,  43 

Flower  Tables,  157 

Fluted  Foot,  111 

Fontainebleau,  70a*,  83,  129*,  222a* 


Hadley  Chests,  204* 

Halfpenny,  William,  176 
Hals,  Franz,  123* 

Hardware,  189 
Hargraves,  204,  210 
Hawksmoor,  123,  176 
Hebraic,  3,  18 

Henri  II,  7,  78*,  83*,  118,  124,  126,  127* 
Henri  III,  83,  124 
Henri  IV,  8,  83,  124,  126*,  140 
Henry  VIII,  118 

Hepplewhite,  159*,  176,  181,  184,  185, 
186*,  189*,  190*.  191,  192*,  193*,  201 
Heraldic  Forms,  34 
Herculaneum,  151 


Kas,  210*,  211 

Kauffmann,  Angelica,  176,  191,  197, 
201  222 

Kent,  William,  130*,  176,  180 

Lacquer,  118,  144,  145 

Lacquered  Furniture,  117,  226 

La  Fontaine,  133,  150 

Lancashire  Chair,  105*,  194,  202 

Lancet  Gothic,  55 

Lancret,  139 

Latrobe,  204,  210,  211 

Leathers,  89,  94a*,  110,  112,  124 

Le  Brun,  132,  141 

Le  Pautre,  Jean  and  Antoine,  132 

236 


INDEX 


Le  Roux,  144 
Linenfold  Panels,  57,  61 
Lions,  17,  28,  45,  180 
Lock,  Mathias,  176,  179 
Lockwood,  Luke  Vincent,  217 
Lombards,  27 
Looking-glasses,  110,  207* 

Lotus,  15,  17 
Louis  XI,  49 

Louis,  XIII,  8,  124,  125*,  126*,  127*, 
129*,  131* 

Louis  XIV,  8,  113,  125*,  127*,  132*, 
134*,  135*,  136*,  137*,  142*,  143*, 
144*,  148* 

Louis  XV,  134a*,  142*,  144,  145*,  148*, 
154* 

Louis  XVI,  8,  151,  153,  155*,  156*, 
157*,  158*,  159* 

Love  Seats,  169 
Lucca  della  Robbia,  77 
Luccan  Damascenes,  125 
Lyre-form  Chairbacks,  193 

Mahogany,  8,  105,  145,  163,  180,  204 
Mansart,  132 
Mantels,  158a*,  185 
Manwaring,  176,  177,  179 
Marble  Couches,  23 
Marbled  Papers,  168 
Marie  Antoinette,  150,  151,  152,  222a*, 
226 

Marot,  Daniel,  118,  132,  137*,  169 
Marot,  Jean,  132 
Marquetry,  119,  124 
Marquetried  Furniture,  117 
Marshall,  221 
Martin,  Robert,  118,  147 
Martin,  Simon  Etienne  Jr.,  147 
Mayhew,  176,  177,  179 
Mazarin,  132,  183 
Medieval  Art,  27 
Medieval  Furniture,  33* 

Messonnier,  150 
Mexican  Decoration,  224 
Michael  Angelo,  123 
Mignard,  133 

Milanese  Renaissance,  8,  77 

Milton,  176 

Mirror  Glass,  110,  210 

Mirrors,  22,  80,  110,  128,  150,  207* 

Mission,  219,  223*,  224 

Mohammedan,  7,  39 

Moliere,  133 

Monnoyer,  132 

Moorish,  5,  7,  38,  39,  41* 

Moquette  Carpets,  157 
Moresque,  130 

Morris,  William,  219,  220,  221 
Mortlake  Tapestry  Works,  38,  112 
Mosaics,  23 
Mullais,  John,  220 
Mythological  Subjects,  28  197 


Napoleonic  Bee,  163 
Napoleonic  Crown,  158b*,  163 
Natoire,  147 
Netherlands,  68 
Netherlands  Gothic,  61,  68* 

Nettings,  15 
Norfolk,  194 
Norman,  7 

Norman  England,  27 
Norman  Romanesque,  27,  32* 
Northern,  7,  25 
Norwegian  Renaissance,  95 

Oak,  8,  118 
Oak  Leaf,  76 
Oberkampf,  167 
Octagons,  28 
Oeben,  144 

Ogival  Forms,  27*,  34,  35,  70 
Oiled  Linen,  209 
Oiled  Paper,  209 
Oriental  Motif,  111* 

Oriental  Rugs,  110,  133,  145 

Ormolu,  150,  229 

Otter,  25  » 

Ottoman,  8,  39,  42* 

Ottomans,  157 
Oudry,  144 

Oval  Chair-backs,  187* 

Ovals,  34 
Overton,  176 

Paine,  176 

Painted  Furniture,  124,  208,  225*,  227 

Painted  Linens,  167 

Palladio,  77,  103 

Palm,  17,  23,  39 

Panels,  23 

Paper,  168 

Papyrus  Buds  15 

Partheon,  7 

Peacock,  27,  28,  50 

Pea  Form,  39,  42,  61 

Pediments,  130*,  193* 

Pelasgic,  7,  22 

Pembroke  Tables,  191 

Perforated  Doors,  57 

Pergolesi,  176,  191,  197,  198*,  201,  226 

Perpendicular  Gothic,  55 

Persian,  3,  7,  17,  18,  39,  43*,  74 

Perso  Byzantine,  31 

Phoenician,  3,  18 

Phyfe,  204,  210,  211 

Pierced  Rails,  180 

Pier  Table,  157 

Pineapple,  23,  39 

Pines,  39 

Plumes,  137 

Pomegranate,  39 

Pompadour,  Madam,  144 

Pompeii,  7,  151 

Pompeiian,  7,  19,  20*,  23,  161,  197,  199 


Porcelain,  137 

Portieres,  28 

Portuguese,  3,  6 

Portuguese  Persian,  73 

Portuguese  Renaissance,  95 

Pre-Raphaelites,  220 

Printed  Fabrics  and  Paper,  166,  222 

Printed  Linens,  167,  194 

Queen  Anne,  8,  105,  117,  169,  170 
171*,  173*,  174*,  175*,  179,  213*  ' 
Queen  Anne  Highboy,  169* 

Queen  Anne  Love-seat,  169* 

Racine,  133 
Rag  Paper,  168 
Raphael,  77 
Rayed  Stars,  49 
Rectangular  Patterns,  34 
Reeds,  15 
Regency,  139,  148* 

Rembrandt,  183* 

Renaissance,  77,  88,  102*,  127* 
Renaissance  Development,  77,  114 
Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  1> 
Ribbon-back  Chair,  180 
Richardson,  176,  201 
Riesener,  144,  154 
Rock  and  Shell,  133 
Rocking  Chairs,  227 
Rococo,  8,  139,  150,  168* 

Roentgen,  154,  226 
Roman,  3,  4,  7,  19,  21*,  22,  23 
Romanesque,  7,  31,  34,  35,  36 
Romanesque  Gothic,  53 
Roman  Renaissance,  8,  77,  123 
Ronezzano,  99 
Rope  Seats,  15 
Rosewood,  163 

Rossetti,  Dante  Gabriel,  220,  221 
Rossetti,  William,  220 
Roundabout  Chair,  212*,  215* 
Rounded  Wood,  179 
Round  Head  Gothic,  53 
Rubens,  103,  123* 

Rush  Floors,  57,  110,  119*,  210 
Rush  Seats,  15,  212 
Ruskin,  219,  225 
Russian,  5,  27,  69* 

Russian  Renaissance,  92*,  95,  97* 

S Curve,  103,  105 
S-Shaped  Chair  Leg,  118 
Sacred  Tree,  15,  18 
Salembier,  154 
Sanded  Floors,  210 
Saracenic,  28*,  31,  38,  48 
Sarcenets,  28 
Sassanian,  7 
Satin,  125 

Scandinavian,  5,  7,  25,  26* 

Scissor  Chair  (see  X Chair),  118 


237 


INDEX 


Schinkel,  168 
Schubert,  219 
Sconces,  128 
Scroll  Feet,  111 
Secession,  219 
Seralio,  77 

Serpentine  Stretcher,  117 
Settees,  117 

Seventeenth  Century  English  Furni- 
ture, 120*,  121* 

Shah  Abbas,  39 

Shearer,  176,  187,  188*,  190*,  193 
Shellacking-,  118 
Shell  Shapes,  105,  137 
a^&heraton,  154,  159*,  176,  181*,  185,  188‘-, 
189*,  190,  191,  193,  195*,  201*,  202 
Shield-shape  Chairbaeks,  187* 

Sicilian,  49 
Siculo-Saracenic,  49 
Sideboards,  189*,  191,  215 
Silk,  19,  28,  35,  49,  75,  113,  125,  131*, 
194 

Silver  Ornamentation,  18 

Sixteenth  Century  Fabric  Designs,  71* 

Smith,  George,  176 

Smooth  Splat,  169 

Spade  Foot,  111 

Spanish,  3,  5,  6,  7 

Spanish  Gothic,  66* 

Spanish  Portuguese,  6 
Spanish  Renaissance,  6,  8,  93*,  94*,  95, 
96* 

Spinning  Machine,  75 
Splat  Back,  180 
Squares,  28,  34 
Stalactite  Forms,  133 
Stencil  Work,  227 
Stephens,  220 

Street,  George  Edmund,  220 
Stretchers,  112,  169 
Stripes,  28,  34 
Stone,  Nicholas,  123,  176 
Stools,  15 


Stuart,  8,  99 
Stuccos,  80*,  103,  133 
Swan,  Abraham,  176 
Swastika,  11,  12 
Swiss  Renaissance,  98 
Switzerland,  96*,  98 
Sycamore,  118 
Syria,  3 

Taffetas,  28 

Tapestries,  22,  28,  31,  35 
Tapestry  Weaving,  222 
Tarsia  (see  Intarsia) 

Taylor,  Sir  Robert,  176 
Tea  Tables,  212 
Teutonic,  3,  4 
Textile  Design,  57,  64 
Textile  Weaving,  35 
Thomas,  W.,  176,  201 
Tiles,  31,  34 

Toile  de  Jouy,  141,  164,  166*,  167* 
Torch,  163 
Torrigiano,  99 
Tortoise  Shell,  150 

Transition,  72,  139,  151,  154,  160*,  161, 
162*,  163 

Tudor  Gothic,  8,  55,  61,  109* 

Turkish,  8,  39,  44* 

Turned-Rail  Furniture,  95* 

Turned  Wood,  28,  212 
Tuscan,  7 
Tyrol,  98 

Tyrol  Gothic,  53,  61,  68* 

Upholstered  Chairs,  117,  118,  124,  212 
Urns,  60 

Van  Brugh,  123,  176 
Van  Dyke,  103,  123* 

Vandermeulen,  132 
Varnish,  118 

Velvet,  22,  28,  75,  86*,  87*,  113,  125,  133' 
Veneering,  23,  119,  125,  229 
Venetian,  70,  76 


Venetian  Damasks,  125 
Venetian  Renaissance,  8,  77,  123 
Vernis-Martin,  118,  144,  147,  226 
Verrio,  123 
Vezier,  125 
Victoria,  Queen,  219 
Victorian,  8 
Vitruvian  Scrolls,  22 
Voysey  Design,  220* 

Wagner,  219 
Wainscoted  Chairs,  212 
Wainscoti  ng,  57 
Wallis,  176,  201 
Wall-paper,  168,  204,  210,  222 
Walnut,  8,  113,  119 
Walpole,  176,  180 
Ware,  Isaac,  176,  204,  210 
Watteau,  Antoine,  139,  146* 

Webb,  123,  176,  221 
Wedgwood,  Josiah,  176,  198 
White  Woodwork,  179,  185,  210 
Wicker,  105,  212 

William  and  Mary,  8,  113,  116*,  121 

213* 

Willow,  118 

Window  Traceries,  212,  215 
Windsor  Chairs,  202,  206*,  214 
Winged  Bulls,  18 
Winged  Dolphins,  13,  22 
Winged  Human  Figures,  15,  18 
Wood  Carving,  83 
Woods,  Chronology  of,  160,  234 
Wood  Finish,  118 
Wood-paneled  Chairs,  104 
Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  103,  122*,  123 
128*,  176 

X Chair,  118 

Yorkshire  Chair,  105*,  194 

Zigzags,  15 
Zucchi,  176,  197,  201 


238 


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